`China and Africa

The end of the cold war at end of the eighties and the collapse of the Soviet union at the beginning of the nineties, led to the termination of the bi- polar age, and the rising of the united States of America to occupy the position of the greatest international unipolar as considered the power that came out triumphantly from the cold war: this is besides the elements of military, economic, technological and diplomatic power which have not been available for any international power, perhaps since the age of the Roman Empire.

Yet, reading the reality and investigating history denote that such stage which is lived by the world after the disappearance of the bi-polar age, is just a transitional stage imposed by a temporary disorder in the world great powers' balances during a particular period. Hence, this stage itself with its unsettled nature pave the way for the appearance of another more stable and settled stage in which two or more parallel polars appear on top of the international pyramid.

It this context, China imposes itself on all. It Jumps to the front as one of the most important countries chosen to occupy the position of the second polar in the world bi-polar equilibrium, with its huge scientific, economic and human capabilities, as a natural candidate to balance the weight of the American polar in the west.

In order to achieve the “Chinese Renaissance” or the Chinese modernization project,Beijing maintained several initiatives and principles in its policy and strategy towards Africa. The most important of these initiatives are:

 

The three points Initiative:

This is the initiative which was offered by the Chinese President “Ho Jintao” in the speech which he delivered in front of the Gabonese national society about means of enhancing the Chinese- African relations. That initiative focused on the following three points:

1-Maintaining the traditional friendship and boosting the bilateral relations besides supporting solidarity and cooperation with the developing countries including the African ones.

2- The inevitability of the two parties' commitment to the principle of the mutual assistance and interest and supporting the mutual prosperity. China' s politically unconditioned aids offered to Africa should be done in accordance with China's capabilities.

3- The inevitability of widening the Chinese African cooperation in international Affairs in order to protect the rights and interests of the developing countries.

President Ho Jintao initiative in Gabon came few weeks after the speech which was delivered by the Chinese Chairman of the State's Conucil “Wen Jia Bao” during the inauguration of the Second Ministerial Conference for the Chinese AfricanCooperation Forum, which was held in the middle of December 2003 in Addis Ababa his speech contained a number of suggestions about means of enhancing the Chinese African relations, including:-

1- Enhancing the development of the traditional friendship between China and Africa through the mutual support and China's readiness to continue contacts and high- level visits.

2- China's support the African union and NEPAD' (application) and backing the regional and semi- regional integration operations.

3- China's backing to the African continent in the international areas, urging the international society and the united Nations to take all the necessary measures to support the countries of the continent and the regional organizations in their efforts to settle the conflicts.

4- Chinese participation in the peace keeping operations of the United Nations in Africa, and offering help to the peace- keeping efforts which are carried out by the African regional organizations.

5- China's support to Africa's stand regarding multi- polarism in the international society and working with the world community to preserve a multi- civilized world that adopts various developmental models.

6- China's stand, through its position as a permanent member in the Security Council, to the side of the developing countries in general and Africa in particular, to support its legitimate requirements and reasonable suggestions.

7- Opening a new page in the amiable Chinese- African relations and enhancing the mutual Cooperation through the Chinese government's intention to increase its aids to Africa within the framework of the Chinese- African Cooperation Forum and opening the Chinese markets for the African products.

China has a strategy that depends on two major targets which are:

1- Securing the flow of strategic materials, the most important of which is oil, and insuring the presence of China in the areas where such materials are available.

2- Securing the available markets which are open for exporting its flourishing production so that the development process may continue at its current rate.
During his visit to Nigeria in April 2006 the Chinese President “Ho Jintao” gave his vision and projection concerning supporting the new model of the Chinese- African strategic partnership. He summed it up in five main points as follows:

1- Enhancing the mutual political confidence.
2- Expanding the economic cooperation which achieves the equal interest of both parties.
3- Increasing the cultural interaction.
4- Stabilizing the security cooperation.
5- Preserving the close coordination in the international affairs.

The frames of joint cooperation:

Though China, since the establishment of its political system in 1949, has maintained good relations with the developing countries in general and the African countries in particular, yet the relations between the two parties did not acquire their vitality and importance except after the former Chinese President “Jiang Zemen” had visited the African continent in 1996. He, then proposed the”five suggestions” plan to set up stable Chinese- African friendly relations and more cooperation in the twenty first century.

Guarantee to realize these suggestions is to establish the Chinese African Cooperation Forum. Diplomacy sought, all through the period from1996 to 2000, set up and found the frames of Chinese- African Cooperation

The African oil is an obsession to China:

An American magazine published a summary of an 80 pages report that was distributed on the officials of Pentagon for reading and discussion. Its subject was “the coming conflict in the foreseeable future between China and the United States about controlling the resources of energy and natural wealths in the African continent.

The pivotal idea in the report is that the security of the Chinese state is now based on securing and guaranteeing the flow of energy “oil and natural gas” from its first resources in Africa till the ports of China. This is due to China's current dependence on the imported energy (60%in 2004). The African quota of imported energy will increase during the next three years.

As a result of this the Chinese oil diplomacy is driven in its trial for control and domination as an alternative of the United States of America, the main rival of China for obtaining the African oil.

The report goes on to say that China sent military troops to protect the wells producing oil and natural gas in an African country.

The Sudan China made use of the United States 's departure from the Sudan in 1995 to win oil investments until more than half of the Sudanese oil exports go to China according to the statistics of 2004. the Chinese oil companies were able to buy 40 % of the shares of the Sudanese oil company “The Greatest Nile Company” which pumps 300 thousand barrels daily. The Chinese company “Chinobek” set up an oil pipe-line extending for 1500 kilometers, to transport the oil production to port Sudan seaport on the Red Sea and from there to the oil tankers leading for China.

In Chad, the Chinese companies obtained oil investments though the regime in Ndjamina has diplomatic relations with Taiwan, yet the economic interests exceed the principle of a (one unified China) which China sticks to and considers the judging Criterion for its international relations. China seeks to penetrate Guinea Gulf which is rich in oil and to compete with the United States of America for the oil investments. China actually succeeded in having a foot step for it in Angola, Nigeria, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea.

Beijing imports more than 25% of its oil imports from Africa.

During the first visit of the Chinese President to Africa during the period from January 26, 2004 to February 5, 2004, he visited Egypt, Algeria and Gabon. The target of his tour was to recure the increasing needs of his country for oil which the Chinese demand for it , rose high during the recent years to a percentage of 30%.

With Egypt:
The two countries signed “a memo of understanding” relating to the joint cooperation between the two countries in the oil field. Its general frame includes the exchange of the technical experience and capabilities of the Egyptian oil sector in return for the Chinese experience in oil extraction.

The fields of Chinese- African cooperation:
In a quick survey of the Chinese- African relations since the emergenge of the People Republic of China in 1949, we find that China got nearer to the African continent on two levels:

First: Official:
It was represented in the attempts to come closer to the majority of the continent's countries to get their support in the international events. This stage witnessed China's usage of the diplomatic, economic, scientific and technological foreign policy means represented in the technical assistance programmes. The decade of the seventies witnessed several great Chinese projects in the continent, the most important of which is the (TAN- ZAM) railway line between Tanzania and Zambia with a cost of $ 412 millions to be paid in installments within 30 years after a long grace period.

Second: Unofficial:
It witnessed China's adoption of the symbolic means represented in the propaganda aspects besides the revolutionary ideology in the first place to support a number of the opposing movements.

It even extended to offer material and military support to a number of revolutions. Yet, the reaction on this level swiftly stopped specially since the decade of the eighties when China confirmed its commitment that the principle of peaceful coexistence is the basis of the Chinese foreign policy in general.

The Political cooperation:
The two parties, the Chinese and the African, exchanged official visits on various levels come to express the Chinese side' s keenness to enhance the Chinese presence in African and to push forward the efforts of cooperation between the two parties.

China also received, during the period from the beginning of 2004 till August 2005, 13 presidents, two vice- presidents, five prime ministers, nine envoys of the states' presidents and 14 foreign ministers from the African countries. These officials held talks with China concerning the boosting of bilateral relations and means of implementing the activities of Addis Ababa Declaration.

In the field of enhancing security and stability in Africa, the Chinese government participated in the united Nations peace keeping operations in Africa.

The Economic cooperation:
After the cold war, the Chinese policy towards Africa changed from the strong support for the revolutionary ideological attitudes to a practical method that gives priority to trade and investment with the African countries. Since the beginning of the eighties, the Chinese companies invested more than $ 310 millions in Africa. At the beginning of the third millennium, more than 200 Chinese companies became working in trade in the continent.

 

China set up commercial centers in 11 African countries to expand the trade relations. Trade between china and Africa increased as its volume amounted to nearly $ 6.5 billions in 1991. On 2001, the size of commercial exchange reached $ 10 billions. The Chinese investments in Africa were estimated at the beginning of the third millennium nearly 58% of the total investments in the continent.

 

 China refrained from imposing conditions on the economic and other assistance. It also started to offer law- interest loans to the African countries in view of the continent's importance as a source of raw- materials and a large market for the Chinese products and their importance to develop the Chinese economy.

During the last decade and after Beijing shift to what looks like the capitalist system in economy and the large opening in the world, china gave up the policy of establishing great projects in Africa. It started to focus on the commercial relations. Therefore, the Chinese exports to Africa witnessed a huge leap in the recent years till they reached more than $ 20 millions in 2005. Furthermore, the age of establishing huge projects freely ended as it became on commercial bases.

In the field of tourism, 45.500 Chinese spent their holidays and tourist vacations in Egypt and South Africa in 2004. During the first five months of 2005 the number of Chinese tourists to Africa reached 26.200 thousand.

The African countries from their part, are trying to attract a larger number of the Chinese tourists who came to represent a major point in the international tourism in the recent years. The largest two places for the Chinese tourists in Africa are Egypt and South Africa.

China also started to cancel the debts of some small African countries though the total volume of the exempted debts was not large for a big country like China. (31 African countries made use of such exemption which totaled $ 1.2 billions).

It is noted that China began during the recent years to focus on investment in the field of oil in Africa specially after the large increase of its consumption of oil during the last decade as mentioned earlier.

With the increase of the economic power of China and its world influence, it is expected for the Chinese relations with Africa to develop specially in the field of increasing the Chinese investments in Africa particularly in the oil sector.

The Cultural Cooperation:

There are strong cultural relations between China and Africa as China offers several cooperation programmes with the African countries, the most important of which are:
- The programme of training African diplomats in China.
- The programme of students exchange between China and the African countries.
- The programme of training the African technical staffs in China.
- Offering study grants to many African countries.
China, moreover, sends some of its students to study in some African countries specially at the honorable “Al- Azhar” in Egypt.

Since 1955 until 2000 China sent about 42 of its scholars to sub- Saharan African countries. China also received 626 African students to study in China, from the same countries of the region. During the last decades the number of the Africans who studied in China reached more than five thousand and five hundred (5500) students.

China also encourages the students exchange with the African countries to strengthen the joint understanding.

Evaluation:
The Chinese Policy in Africa faces a number of restrictions that limit its effectiveness and influence compared with the American or the French policies. The most prominent restrictions are:

First:
The weakness of the trade and economic exchange rates with the rates of commercial exchange with other geographical areas and regions in the world. Africa enjoyed only a percentage ranging between 2-3% of the total foreign imports and experts of China during 2004 and 2005 whereas the percentage of the total American products in the African market reach nearly 9% of the gross foreign trade of the united States versus nearly 32% for the European products.

Second:
China's concentration on some African Countries within its African policy. These countries are known as the pivotal countries in the continent and they include:
Egypt, Algeria , Ethiopia, South Africa, Kenya and Senegal.

Third:
Despite the close cooperation and the strong relations between China and Africa, yet there are still some negative aspects and other obstacles that impede the chances of reaching the desired goals of the two sides:

In the economic field:
- The African authorities do not respond to the attempts of the Chinese side to invest in the continent.
- The non- existence of direct communication lines whether air- lines or marine- lines between China and several African countries.
- The African business men's ignorance of the Chinese market.
- The participation of the African countries in the Chinese fairs, is weak.
- The disparity and uncertainty of the laves relating to investment in Africa make the investor less enthusiastic and more afraid.
- Some African institutions are not serious.
- The African trade bureaus in Biejing are weak if compared with the Chinese bureaus in Africa.

In the cultural field:
- The cultural relations need support. This can be done by increasing the African countries' participation in the Chinese cultural activities and seminars, holding a Chinese- African dialogue with the aim of narrowing the cultural gap and creating a unified stand towards what is called “The clash of civilizations”, establishing cultural centres in both sides and increasing the programmers of teaching the Chinese language in the African countries besides translation from and to the Chinese language.

Another point of view goes to say that China uses various means in its rush into the African continent such as making agreements with countries that are characterized by not respecting human rights or other restrictions or principles relating to the democratic regimes where China builds roads and airports as a part of its conception of the economic gains which China seeks to obtain.

China studied the African nap and chose first the areas or the countries which do not occupy the top priority in the economic meaning, in the governmental or non- governmental interest. China started by treading its feet with the aim of getting away from the direct competition with the American policy.

However, China was and still is difficult to understand in view of the ambiguity and complexity and the inaccuracy of the information available on this country which is on the brink of becoming one of the most important powers in our contemporary world of course what is of interest to us and to others about China is its economic experiment which appeared marvelous to all. But the picture is not ideal entirely, as China still moans in the region of the poor countries.

The Chinese model has been described in more than one occasion as being not more than a bubble which is threatened by explosion at any time, when it will start after wards its historical retreat.

Africa and China
A Strategic Partnership(1)

Increasing numbers of Chinese companies are developing connections in Africa with the aim of increasing trade between China and the African continent. This relationship between China and Africa has not happened unnoticed but the discussion in the west not well informed. Questions about how to deal with this development and its consequences are being raised. This paper is a first attempt to fill this lacuna and presents an overview of Sino-African relations. China's aid programme to Africa and the state of trade relations, with special emphasis on natural resources and the export market for Chinese products and investments in Africa.

1. Sino- African Relations in the Past
The relationship between China and Africa has evolved noticeably over the last five decades and three separate periods can be distinguished within this timeframe. Initially, relationships were established between China and African states as they gained independence. Then came the period when China was given a permanent seat on the UN Security Council in 1971. The final phase covers the post-Maoist period and is characterized by the liberalization and subsequent growth of the Chinese economy.

China's relationship with Africa started to develop in the early 1950s. Before 1955, Africa was of no significant importance to China but from then on-ards, China sought international recognition and political allies, hoping to strengthen international alliances against the capitalist -est and the revisionist communist Soviet Union.(2)

The Bandung Conference was held in 1955. This meeting of 29 Asian and African states aimed to promote economic and cultural relations between the two continents. The topics that were on the agenda included colonialism, imperialism and the hegemonic position of the Western powers. According to Wright, the conference enhanced the unity and co-operation of the Asian and African countries, inspired by the people in the colonies to struggle for national liberation and played a significant role in promoting the anti-imperialist and anti¬colonial struggle of the Asian and African people.(3)

What all the countries had in common was their shared history and their perception of white dominance by the West. Statements such as we all belong to the Third World, we are developing countries':(4) were commonly heard at this time.

 

 During the conference, China and the African states adopted the five principles of 'Peaceful Coexistence' that had earlier been formulated by India and China. These covered (1) mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity; (2) mutual non-aggression; (3) non-interference in each other  internal affairs; (4) equality and mutual benefit; and (5) peaceful coexistence.(5)

Following the conference, China supported African countries with economic, technical and military support in an attempt to restrain the dominant western powers and create a new political and international order. African states were at the same time seeking allies to help them win their fight for independence and financial support to fund these struggles.After internal disputes had been settled, China began to establish new relationships on the African continent. (6)

According to Larkin, Sino-African relations in the 1970s had five key characteristics. First, the number of African countries with diplomatic ties gradually increased. In 1967, China had 13 diplomatic missions in Africa and by 1974 this number had increased to 30.

Box 1: The Battle for Africa

 The People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China on Taiwan (ROC) have always competed for political recognition. In 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC on the United Nations Security Council as the 'legitimate China'. From then onwards, the PRC won recognition from many states, leaving the ROC with less international support. In the early 1980s there were only 22 states worldwide that recognized the ROC, and the PRC became a strategic partner for international issues. Alliances were subsequently formed.

With more than 50 states in Africa, there have been opportunities for both the ROe and the PRC to establish alliances. Africa was seen as a battleground when it came to establishing diplomatic relations. With aid programmes and loans, the two governments sought partnerships and thus recognition. From the 1990s onwards, competition increased dramatically.

The foreign policies of African countries have for a long time been driven by the search for aid and substantial financial contributions have often determined the choice made by African governments in this respect. However, relations can easily change. For example Liberia, Senegal and the Central African Republic have switched allegiances at least five times in the past. Currently, there are only six countries that have diplomatic ties with Taiwan: Burkina Faso, Chad, Gambia, Ivlalawi, 5ao Tome and Principe, and Swaziland.

2. China's Aid Agreements
China's relations with Africa have been characterized by aid agreements. In the struggle for independence in Africa, China was willing to assist the new nation states with prestigious projects, emphasizing that it had given all it could in terms of financial and technical resources.(15) China's strategy was simple, it was trying to cultivate as many allies as it could and maintain old friendships. As mentioned in the previous section, the ROC was also assisting African countries and competition between it and the PRC emerged.

Today, relations between China and Africa are more pragmatic. Trade and mutual benefits are central in current partnerships. However, China still supports a number of African countries with direct aid. Three major themes can be distinguished, building projects, Chinese medical teams, and scholarships for Africans to study in China.

China has assisted Africa with numerous projects, the largest of which was the construction of the 1800-km Tanzania-Zambia railway which cost over $450 million. China has also constructed roads, wells and telecommunication facilities in Africa, with political allies being granted large projects to mark their independence such as airports, stadiums, palaces, government buildings and factories.

Besides the construction of buildings and infrastructure, China supports Africa with medical teams too. China has a long history in health diplomacy in Africa, with the first medical team having started in Algeria in 1964. From then onwards, Some 15,000 doctors and health workers have been sent to more than 47 African countries.

 

Approximately 180 million patients have been treated by Chinese doctors over the years. Nowadays, Chinese medical assistance is declining for domestic reasons because fewer Chinese doctors are willing to leave their own country to work overseas for two years. Statistics do not highlight this trend however as in 2003 there were still 860 medical personnel working in 35 teams in 31, different countries.

 

African states keep supporting the medical teams, covering their expenses and presenting national awards. Most importantly perhaps is the fact that these Chinese medical teams are building sustainable relations with the African population based on expertise and trust.

China's other aid programme in Africa is in the area of human resources. One of the agreements made at the China-Africa Cooperation Forum related to an increase in human resources. China established a fund that is jointly used by several Chinese ministries, such as those of foreign affairs, commerce, education, and science and technology, and together they are responsible for the training and education of Africans.

 

In 2003, 6000 people were trained and 1500 students visited China on educational exchange programmes. By providing these scholarships, China has contributed significantly to the development of human resources in Africa. In addition, scholarship programmes like these encourage bonds between Chinese and African institutions and students. (16)

China's support for Africans through the construction of buildings or infrastructure, by giving medical assistance or through the development of human resources is a strategy aimed at creating a long-term relationship based on mutual respect, understanding and friendship. According to Thompson, (2005), the relationship between China and Africa must be seen in a broader perspective.

China's influence and sound relationship in Africa are the result of many years of investment in building relations through aid, trade, and cultural and technical exchange - not just by the product of China's recently booming economy and soaring demand for African raw materials.
China's aid to Africa was never unconditional. Over the years, Beijing restructured its aid policy and imposed more restrictions. Interest-free government loans became discount loans offered through Chinese banks and aid grants were replaced by joint ventures and other forms of cooperation. By the late 1990s, China had established 480 joint ventures in 47 countries in Africa.(18)

3. China-Africa Cooperation Forum
China and Africa have set up various trade agreements in the past. The first initiative was taken as early as 1955 at the Bandung Conference. This agreement however, was merely political and while establishing diplomatic ties with African countries; economic and cultural agreements were signed by both parties. In 2000, the first large-scale conference on Sino-African trade was held in Beijing.

According to China, the purpose of the Sino-African Forum was 'the construction of an international political and economic order and [to] explore new Sino-African cooperation'. Over 40 African states with 80 foreign ministers and ministers in charge of international economic cooperation were present. In addition; 17 international and regional organizations, NGO's and entrepreneurs were also in attendance to discuss South-South cooperation; the North-South dialogue, debt relief, and Chinese economic cooperation with African states.(19)

 

 The conference produced two key documents, namely, the Beijing Declaration and the Programme for China-Africa Co-operation in Economics and Social Development. The latter described Chinese investments in Africa, financial cooperation between China and the African Development Bank Group (ADB) debt relief and cancellation, agricultural cooperation, natural resources and energy, education and multilateral cooperation.(20)

In 2003, the second China-Africa Cooperation Forum was held in Addis Ababa when Prime Minister Wen Jiabao declared that foreign assistance and investment 'comes with the deepest sincerity and without any political conditionalities'. During the meetings in 2000, South Africa raised the issue of debt relief, which China opposed. However three years later it announced debt relief for African countries to a total of US$1.27 billion and granted aid packages to several states. By making this gesture towards African states, China put itself on equal terms with the West regarding operations in Africa.( 21)

4. Sino-African Trade
The previous sections have described China's relations with Africa during the twentieth century regarding politics, aid and trade agreements. China was geo-politically motivated in its support of Africa, as it was a way of opposing the super powers and western hegemony. China also shared a common identity with Africa, being a Third World country itself. However, in the 1990s this approach towards Africa became more pragmatic. This section offers insight into the state of China's current relations with Africa, which are primarily based on trade.

 
The country's post-Maoist era is characterized by economic expansion. The figure below shous the total value of China's exports and imports between 1978 and 2004. It can be seen that from 1991 onwards growth has increased and now exceeds $100 billion.

Trade between China and Africa has quadrupled since 2000 when trade between Africa and China totalled around $10 billion. Just five years later it had increased to $28 billion. Table 3 shows the development of Sino-African trade between 1999 and 2003. China is now Africa's third largest commercial partner after the United States and France, and the second largest exporter to Africa after France. Remarkably, Britain - as a former colonial power - has been left far behind by China.( 22)

The economic relationship between Africa and China can be divided into three sections: China's drive for resources such as oil, minerals, and food; new export markets for its products; and new investment opportunities for Chinese companies. Exports from Africa to China are primarily commodities and oil, while African imports from China consist of manufactured goods such as industrial products, electrical equipment and machinery, textiles and household utensils.

Natural Resources
China currently has the fastest growing economy in the world, with an annual growth rate of around 8%. But such rapid economic development in the post-Maoist era has required a steady and growing supply of oil. A major change came about in 1993, when China became an energy importer instead of a net exporter. China's demand for oil has been so rapid that in 2004 the country became the world's second largest oil importer after the US. The growing demand is due to not only an expanding economy but also to a generally wealthier society with its increased demand for consumer goods such as cars and fridges. It is estimated that the Chinese demand for oil will increase by 156% between the years 2001 and 2025.

Like The US, China is seeking new countries and different suppliers to fulfil its oil requirements in order to diversify its sources and achieve energy security. In Africa, where new reservoirs have recently been found, China has every possible chance of success when it comes to exploiting new sources. To gain and retain control of these sources, it is allocating considerable military, political diplomatic and economic resources. (23)

Africa owns around 8% of the world's oil reserves and 11% of world oil production. It is estimated that production in Africa is rising 6% annually. By 2007, it will reach seven million barrels a day and by 2010 this figure is estimated to be eight million. New deep¬water oil discoveries have been made in the Gulf of Guinea, more specifically in Nigeria, Angola and Equatorial Guinea. Even though Africa is notorious for its political and economical challenges, international oil companies are continuing to invest in the continent. This is because Africa is economically attractive for foreign investors as good conditions are offered by African leaders and most of the oil is being found offshore which has advantageous for the loading of tankers and provides a degree of stability in oil production levels. African oil is also of high quality.

A quarter of China's oil imports come from Africa: from Algeria, Angola, Chad, Sudan, Nigeria, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. The thirst for oil is becoming so important that even the 'One China Principle' is being disregarded since Chad has diplomatic relations with Taiwan. A new pipeline from Chad to Cameroon opened in 2003 so that oil from Chad can be transported directly to a major port. Even though this trade in natural resources has a positive effect on the trade balance, it has some disadvantages as well. The production of oil merely requires capital investment and labourers are not required in large numbers. And in countries where oil is abundant; governments tend to focus on the wealth-generating oil sector and to neglect other sectors. Corruption is a frequent problem. Malaquias takes an extreme position when he claims that:

All citizens become potential thieves with catastrophic consequences for stability - political social, economic and legal - as the bases for interpersonal interaction are irremediably broken, Problematically, instead of fostering development, resource-wealth has been an important factor in the political instability, military conflict, social dislocation, and economic degradation that have characterized much of post-colonial Africa,(24)

Countries are seeking to diversify their energy resources to meet their growing needs for energy. As the need for energy becomes even greater in the future, the scenario described above can be expected to become more common. The international community has already accused China of unethical practices in Africa. The boxes below describe the cases of Sudan and Angola and their relationship with China. (25)

Box 2: China in Sudan
Sudan's total oil reserves are currently estimated at five billion barrels. The country produces about 500,000 barrels a day and this figure is likely to increase to 750,000 barrelsim 2006. According to the WTO, oil exports to China accounted for 64 % of Sudan's total oil exports in 2004.

China's first oil imports from Sudan were in 1995. China's national petroleum Corporation began oil exploration there and has expanded steadily. In 1997, the US imposed economic and trade sanctions on Sudan and China then moved in to fill the gap that western countries had left. Currently, China National Petroleum is the largest shareholder and essentially controls the Sudanese energy sector as it is the main investor in Sudanese oil production. China covered the cost of most of the $15 billion 932-mile pipeline to Port Sudan where it is building a tanker terminal. In 2005, approximately 10,000 Chinese workers were employed in Sudan.

Both China and Sudan benefit from this relationship. China has been able to diversify its oil resources and become less dependent on other oil producing countries while Sudan has found a reliable economic partner that does not question its domestic political situation. China has offered a financial lifeline to the Sudanese government.

In addition, China's position on the UN Security Council has meant that Sudan has avoided serious sanctions by the west. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 1556 that demanded that the Sudanese government disarm the Janjaweed and bring to justice those leaders who had incited and carried out human-rights abuses. The Security Council threatened to consider further sanctions if the government failed to comply. China, as a permanent member threatened to use its veto power and urged the west to “cool down”. As mentioned earlier, China has assisted Sudan financially and militarily even though it was aware of the widespread ethnic cleansing  taking place in Darfur. Human Rights Watch has for this reason accused China of cooperating in the genocide in Darfur since 2003.

In conclusion, good relations between the two governments have resulted in China being the main stakeholder in the oil business in Sudan. To procure oil for its expanding economy, China has supported the Sudanese government both financially and politically and ignored any related ethical issues. In other words, energy security overrides other concerns.

Box 3: China in Angola
Angola is currently recovering from a thirty-year civil war and donors from western countries are assisting in the much-needed reconstruction of institutions and the economy.

China is also present in Angola, assisting in infrastructure reconstruction. China's offered Angola a 'soft' loan of $2 billion with no political strings attached in March 2004. The terms of the loan specify its repayment within 17 years at an interest rate of 1.5%. The money has been earmarked for reconstruction and development projects such as railways, electricity and administrative buildings.

 

 However, the terms of the agreement are advantageous for China as 70% of the construction projects are to be assigned to Chinese companies. Domestic contractors can be awarded only 30% of the projects covered by the loan, a fact that is causing consternation among Angolan businessmen. The loan is not going to create opportunities for Angolans, which are vital for the livelihoods of the local people. A second important term of the agreement is that China can import 10,000 barrels of oil a day from Angola. Angola currently exports 25% of its oil to China.

The loan, which was initially intended for the reconstruction of the country, is being used for other purposes as well. According to Global Witness, some of the money has been used for government propaganda in the 2006 elections. Global witness has declared that part of the problem lies in the country's unwillingness to be more transparent about its oil revenues. It prefers to sign commercial loans backed by oil than cheaper loans from large international institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF that demand reforms and transparency. China's loan therefore is undermining the international pressure being put on the government to invest in the development of Angola.

Another natural resource that China needs to import from Africa to support is own economic growth is timber. Until recently, the demand for timber was met by domestic lodgers. However in 1998, the Yangtze River overflowed resulting in 2,500 deaths and billions of dollars of damage. Following these floods, the Chinese government banned logging in large parts of China and has begun to protect its healthy forests and replant woodlands that had already been cleared for agriculture. These measures were taken to prevent further large-scale disasters, such as the 1998 floods. Internal pressure has forced China to import timber from other countries and imports of industrial wood have more than tripled since 1993.

 

 China is now importing considerable amounts of wood from the forests of Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Liberia. In Cameroon, the exports from illegal logging amount to 50% of total exports of wood, and in Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Liberia the figure has risen to 90%. The types of wood that are being exported are not declared in national trade statistics, which makes it impossible to determine the actual imports of different kinds of timber.(26) According to the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the main exporting countries are Nigeria, the Central Africa Republic, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon.

China is the world's leading exporter of textiles and clothing. In spite of its own domestic production, China still needs to import cotton, which it does from the US. However, the share of the African countries that export cotton - Burkina Faso, Benin, Mali, Guinea, Nigeria, Togo and the Central African Republic-has increased since the middle of 1990s.(27)

China not only imports oil and minerals from Africa, it also needs access to more agricultural land, with its increasing population and rapid industrialization, farmland in China has become scarce and in the future the country will have to rely on food imports to feed its own population.(28) China is currently investing in agriculture, fisheries and related secondary production in Africa and has already signed contracts with Sierra Leone, Gabon and Namibia to allow Chinese fishermen to fish in their coastal waters. In addition, they have leased agricultural land in Zambia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe.(29)

To conclude, certain African countries - mainly Sudan and Angola with their oil exports - are the prime exporters of African natural resources and commodities to China. Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon export timber as well as oil, and exports from South Africa to China comprise mainly of manufactured goods.

Imports
Africa does not only export natural resources and commodities to China. Many goods are also being imported from China. Even though the African market is relatively small for consumer goods Africa's population totals approximately 800 million - China has been able to find a ready market for its cheap, low-quality consumer products and it is trying aggressively to take control of the African market. According to one Chinese trade analyst, Chinese products are well-suited to the African market. At the moment, China is in a position to manufacture basic products at very low prices and of satisfactory quality.(30)

Many products are produced in state-owned factories in China and sold through a growing informal network of trading posts across urban and rural Africa. The number of Chinese traders in Africa has increased since the 1960s when Chinese traders settled in Africa on a large scale. In 1949, there were about 27,000 Chinese people in Africa and this number had grown to 130,000 by1999. Most of these traders settled in Mauritius, Madagascar and South Africa(31) but, according to observers, the number of Chinese in West Africa is increasing as well. These African traders import Chinese goods that are attractively priced for the African market where purchasing power is limited. African businessmen increase their profit margins by cutting out intermediaries. This is the case in almost all African countries and the African market is being flooded with cheap Chinese products.(32)

Africa is a new and interesting market with excellent conditions for the Chinese with its many potential customers for cheap Chinese products. The imported goods are mostly household utensiIs, mechanical and electric products, textiles and clothes. China is focusing its exports on countries with large populations, for example, South Africa, Nigeria, Egypt, Morocco and Algeria. These five countries, with their relatively high purchasing power by African standards, together account for 58% of African imports from China.

One of the main commodities that China exports to Africa is textiles, a sector in which it is able to compete with Africa due to its low labour costs. In fact, Chinese textile exports are undermining local African production and concern about this is growing. China has increased its textile and clothing exports even further since its accession to the WTO in 2001. Table 4 shows the rapid increase in China's share of the market since becoming a member of the WTO. (33)

Recently, the share of Chinese textiles in the South African market increased even further and 86% of South Africa's clothing imports currently come from China.

Not only has the domestic market been affected by the sudden rise of China. Exports of African textiles have also been hit. The growth of Chinese exports to the US is negatively affecting the previously promising growth that African exports were enjoying in this field. This negative impact on African exports comes from the ending of the Multi-Fibre Agreement (MFA), which had allowed countries like the US to place quotas on clothing and textile imports from certain countries.

 

The MFA lasted for 30 years from 1974 until 2004 and was designed to set quotas on the levels of imports of textiles and clothing from developing to developed countries, essentially safeguarding industries in the industrialized countries and controlling the level of market access for imports from developing countries. In 2000, the US and 48 African states drew up the African Growth and Opportunity Act, (AGOA), which gave African states full access to the American market and resulted in textiles becoming a major growth opportunity.

 

Southern Africa in particular began to focus on its textile industry. However once the MFA ended on 1 January 2005, the export of Chinese textiles to the US began to flourish and African exporters could not compete. More than ten clothing factories in Lesotho closed in 2005, and South African exports to the US dropped from US$26 million in the first quarter of 2004 to $12 million in 2005.(34)

China's involvement in the African textile sector is not new and the country has always been pragmatic about international trade. In 1999, Chinese investors set up factories in Lesotho and Swaziland to take advantage of the (AGOA) agreement and have duty-free access to American markets. In this way, China could avoid US and EU quotas on Chinese textiles.  vVhen the MFA ended, China simply closed the factories, leaving thousands of people unemployed. Production in China itself was cheaper and therefore more profitable.

Box 4: Chinese Arms in Africa
Arms have always been among the Chinese commodities exported to Africa. During the struggle for independence, China exported arms to fight western imperialism and, later, China supported African states with weapons during the Cold War. An ideology for a new world order lay at the root of these exchanges. And China is still exporting arms to certain countries although the ideology behind these exports has become more less idealistic.

Selling arms to some African leaders improves bilateral relationships and can enhance Chinese access to oil and natural resources. China does not demonstrate much concern for human rights, which is something they consider a western concept. Some experts say that China is now selling military equipment worldwide and views Africa as a potential market for the sale of military hardware. The involvement of China in African politics also becomes clear when one looks at the military exchanges between China and African states. Over the years Chinese defence ministers have paid numerous visits to their African colleagues and vice versa.

According to the Congressional Research Service, China's arms sales to Africa between 1996 and 2003 made up 10% of all arms transfers to Africa. During the Ethiopian-Eritrean war in 1998, it delivered arms to both sides for a total of more than $1 billion. China sold the Sudanese government weapons and helicopters that were used in Darfur to terrorize the local people.

In 2000, Zimbabwe delivered eight tons of Zimbabwean ivory in exchange for a shipment of small arms. And in 2004, China sold the Zimbabwean army 12 fighter jets and 100 trucks in a deal worth more than $200 million. The shift of allegiances by President Mugabe is understandable, having been rejected by the West, he designed a new “Look East” policy. Nowadays, nearly all Zimbabwe's trade is with China, which is investing in minerals, roads and agriculture.

 

Chinese Investments
A third characteristic of trade relations between Africa and China is investment by Chinese companies in Africa. By 2004, nearly 700 Chinese companies were operating in 49 African countries. Chinese state companies invest mainly in oil, mines, fishing, woods and precious metals and infrastructure and also in sectors that the West has neglected because they are less profitable. For example, China has reopened the Zambian copper mines and is looking for oil fields off the coast of Gabon. In 2004, Chinese investments in Africa accounted for more than US$900 million. This is around 6 % of total investments of $16 billion in Africa.(35)

Not surprisingly, China is investing in countries where it is getting its natural resources from. In 2004, oil-exporting countries such as Algeria, Libya, Nigeria and Sudan accounted for 51% of total Chinese investments. Zambia is also an important trade partner and China recently reopened the Chambezi Mining Company. Other countries that received a relatively large share of Chinese trade 'were Ethiopia and Botswana.(36)

 

 According to the Chinese, Botswana has a politically stable environment and enjoys amicable relations with its neighbouring countries. Moreover, its products enjoy free access to the whole Southern African market. All these factors are in fact positive reasons 'why increasing numbers of Chinese businesses and investments - ranging from construction, textiles, services and wholesale and retail industries - are coming to Botswana.(37)

Not all Chinese investment in Africa is viewed positively by the international community. First, Chinese (construction) firms have lower costs and can consequently outbid their western competitors, winning contracts for projects. International observers fear that the Chinese way of doing business - paying bribes and attaching no conditions - undernlines local efforts to increase transparency and good governance. And the IMF and the World Bank are unable to then put as much pressure on countries because they are supported by China. Finally! Chinese companies are bringing their own labourers to work in Africa. In areas where unemployment is already high, the effects of migrant Chinese labour will be felt over time. For example in Angola,some domestic suppliers and retailers have had to close down because they could not compete with the Chinese. In other parts of Africa resentment against the Chinese is also being felt.(38) Though each of these critiques is legitimate in its own right, the selectivity with which they are put forward sometimes raises questions about the sincerity of the commentator.

5. Conclusion
Relations between Africa and China have increased over the years. Before 1990, the relationship was characterized by a shared struggle against western hegemony, 'with China assisting Africa in three ways. They supported nationalist movements with arms to fight colonization; large construction projects were initiated such as the Tazara  Railway, and China sent medical teams to Africa and provided scholarships for African students to study in China.

In the 1990s, the relationship between China and Africa gradually changed. The approach became more pragmatic and economic development was clearly China's priority. With an annual growth rate of 7% the Chinese economy expanded enormously, and accessing natural resources became a priority. China had to broaden its horizons. Africa, with all its seemingly unlimited natural resources, was an ideal partner. In addition, the African continent as a whole was a potential market for China's low-value manufactured commodities.

Exports from Africa to China are based on natural resources: oil is the most important resource. About 25% of Chinese oil imports are from Africa, with its major sources being in Sudan, Angola, Nigeria and Chad. Other important resources are cotton and timber, the latter often being exported illegally to China. Furthermore, China is investing in the agricultural sector because the land available for agriculture in China is decreasing as its population increases. African imports from China are primarily low-value commodities to countries with large populations, for example, South Africa, Nigeria, Algeria and Egypt. Current trade relations between China and Africa involve a high degree of investment by Chinese companies in Africa with construction projects in infrastructure development, buildings and factories.

Sino-African trade and aid relations have implications for Africa. One advantage is the increased room for manoeuvre for African states now that they are no longer totally dependent on the west. In addition, increasing oil production has boosted the revenue of African states. On the other hand, the Chinese way of doing business does not take into account human rights, the environment or good governance, though this is also not uncommon among western countries when dealing with Africa. The Chinese government states very clearly that the import of oil is its top priority. Exports of textiles and household utensils from China dominate the African market and, as a consequence, African factories have had to close and people have lost their main source of income.

In conclusion, Sino-African trade has many implications for Africa. The continent as a whole is currently China's third biggest trading partner, after the United States and France. Statistics show, on the other hand, that Africa is less important for China. In spite of increased oil exports from Africa, the continent's total trade with China amounts to only 2% of its international trade. China is fast becoming a dominant player in Africa.

The Strategic Dimensions
Of Sino-African relations

 
The Political, economic and commercial relations between China and Africa come within a wider strategic framework that combines the strategic framework that combines the system of common interests which each party endeavours to achieve through the relations existing with the other party. Therefore in spite of the fact that the economic and commercial aspects overwhelm the relations between China and Africa, yet these aspects in themselves imply very important strategic dimensions.

 

 Moreover, there is a mutual conception on both the Chinese  and African sides that needs to widen the frame of these relations and lead them to the level of “a complete strategic partnership”, in accordance with what the declaration, issued by the Chinese- African Forum in November 2006 stated; in an endeavour to adopt a mutual Chinese African trend to face the threats to world security.

The African position in the Chinese foreign policy witnessed three basic transformations all over the last half century. These transformations were linked to the considerations of the Chinese policy on the one hand, and to the prevailing changes on the international arena, on the other hand, this we can say that there were three basis stages for the Chinese policy towards Africa through the last five decades. During this period, the Chinese policy ranged between concentrated attention for the African continent and considering it “an area of strategic interests” during the sixties and seventies within the frame of the wider ideological conflict, whether between the east and the west or between China and the former soviet union. The second stage came at the late seventies within the frame of the Chinese leadership's concentration on implementing a broad internal reform process in China, specially in the economic field. This caused a great shrinking in China's interest in Africa.

Since the beginning of the nineties, a new stage has started. During this stage, China returned its attention for the African continent anew. The relations of China with Africa during this stage, tooks a special model on the basis that the chinese economy was in an increasing need for the energy resources , minerals and raw materials from Africa. China also was in need of Africa as a market for its products, besides directing some of the Chinese investments to some African markets specially in the field of oil and mineral activity, in addition to China' s expansion in the unconditional lending policy to several African countries.

On the other hand, the relations between China and Africa also include other fields relating to the defiance cooperation and the weapons exports. This is in addition to China's interest in the political questions which are of concern to each of the two parties, particularly amidst China's interest in obtaining an African and international strong support to its stand concerning the Taiwan question. This is besides the interest of both the Chinese and African sides in working for reforming the structure of the world order.

In the field of security and stability questions China is always keen on emphasizing its effective participation in the efforts of enhancing security and stability is the African continent, through participation in the united Nations Peace Keeping operations in the African continent. China's participation in these operations amounted to nearly 12 operations of this kind since the beginning of the nineties. This is in addition to boosting the military cooperation relations with Africa specially in the fields of: exchanging military technology, military training, military assistance besides activating the Chinese – African cooperation in the field of exchanging intelligence information and exploring more effective means and methods to strengthen the ties in the field of fighting terrorism, smuggling small weapons, drug- trafficking and multi- national economic crimes.

In the field of arms sales, China is considered one of the big arms exporters to Africa. China looks at this question as a mere trade matter, whereas the concerned African countries look at the Chinese arms sales as the only available alternative in view of the traditional embargo which the united states and the European countries impose on the areas of conflict or on the ruling regimes which they consider “despotic regimes” so that these rulers (regimes) may not use such arms to suppress their peoples. Therefore, these countries resort to China to obtain their arms needs because China may be the only available alternative in some cases.

 

Moreover, the Chinese weapons are distinguished by their cheap prices compared to their western equivalents even though they may be technologically less developed.

China sold weapons to several African countries such as Zimbabwe, the Sudan, Ethiopia, Eriteria, Burundi, Tanzania and Equatorial Guinea, yet the Chinese weapons sales to Africa face wide - range criticisms from the part of the western countries.

This is because china does not absolutely take account of the considerations related to human rights of the embargo imposed on the weapons imports to the areas of conflict. These lead to inflaming and escalating these conflicts. They also give a chance to the despotic suppression regimes to exit or stay longer.

The Taiwan question is one of the indicators of the Chinese policy in Africa. China endeavors to use its good political and economic relations with many countries in the continent to surround Taiwan and to prevent it from getting the diplomatic recognition of the continent' s countries, this is in addition guaranteeing the support of the African countries to the Chinese stand in case that Taiwan seeks in future to obtain independence or international recognition through the united Nations.

China actually succeeded in obtaining this recognition from six new African countries, through offering large economic aids to them, as Niger and Lisotu transferred their diplomatic recognition from Taiwan to China in 1994 and 1996 respectively. Then central Africa, Guinea Bisaw and South Africa shifted their diplomatic recognition from Taiwan to China in 1998. Liberia also transferred its diplomatic recognition to China in 2003 on the other hand, the question of the developmental model is considered one of the important matters in the Chinese- African relations based on the idea that china offers itself as a unique and distinguished development model capable of satisfying the needs of the African countries. This is a question that stirs a widespread argument among the African political and economic lanes ranging between refusal and acceptance according to definite pretexts offered by each team within the frame of such argument.

On the one hand, some people see that the Chinese pattern is suitable for the African continent because China still considers itself “a developing country”. Its internal circumstances until recently, have been relatively similar to a great extent to the circumstances of many African societies in the political, economic and social fields. This pattern is also based on the fact that Liberalization, democratic transformation and economic reform are not considered a condition for the economic development. Through this pattern, China could develop methods of performance and accomplishment that are characterized by a high degree of effectiveness and speed in implementing the projects at relatively low- cost compared to its equivalents in many western countries. China does not link its economic relations with any country to any political conditions. China also is strictly committed to non intervention in the internal affairs of other countries.

On the other hand, there are several views that see that the Chinese pattern does not suit the circumstances of the African societies because of several economic considerations. The most prominent of them is that the Chinese pattern is basically built on the principle of “the economy directed towards exportation” which is not considered suitable for Africa because Africa does not possess a huge economic structure. Africa, moreover, does not have the capital which is capable of achieving capital accumulation or orientation towards exportation on a large- scale.

 

China, also did not offer much to Africa in the economic fields, because the assistance which china offers o Africa is considered modest. Furthermore, the projects which are carried out by the Chinese companies in Africa do not realize to Africa, as these companies bring Chinese workers to implement their projects in the African countries.

They do not employ African workmen. This means that they deprive the Africans from the employment opportunities created by these projects. Finally, China' s exports represent a severe danger that threatens the limited industrial abilities in several African countries, particularly in the field of clothes. The Chinese exports compete its national counterparts in the African countries and destroy them because of their cheap prices and high quality. This raised a protest from the part of many small and medium factories' owners in several African countries.

Therefore, some say that China' s relations with Africa is a kind of “new imperialism”. This is because such relation goes in accordance with the same lines of the western imperial policies towards Africa, which are based on importing the raw- materials from Africa, at cheap prices in return for exporting the manufactured goods to them. Such goods compete the similar local industries in the African countries.

The question of adopting a joint stand towards the transformations of the world order is considered one of the vital questions in the Chinese- African relations China' s keenness on its relations with Africa is considered a part of its attempts to enhance its position on the international arena. Moreover, many African countries pay great attention to China's increasing role on the international arena as considered an important element for the balance in confronting the American and Western domination.

Therefore, both the Chinese and African sides were keen on emphasizing the above- mentioned meanings, in various joint meetings, particularly on the lane of establishing a just and rational world order and respecting the sovereignty and security of the developing countries besides non- intervention in their internal affairs. The joint declaration issued by the Chinese - African Forum in November 2006 stipulated the establishment of a complete strategic partnership between China and Africa, Some African countries, specially Nigeria, expresses excessive enthusiasm towards the increasing position of China on the international arena to the extent of considering the twenty first century a Chinese century. Nigeria believes that China will lead the world during this century. It also calls for building very close relations between the two sides when such a thing happens.

The main problem here, is that despite the great progress which occurred to the Chinese economic and military abilities, all over the last three decades, yet there are several factors which still limit China' capabilities to become a super power on the international arena, particularly its backwardness compared to the united states and some other super powers in many of the indicators of comprehensive power.

This is in addition to China's inability to develop its political and diplomatic performance in a way that makes it a real super power, through effective addressing of the international questions and problems, specially the world peace and security questions. Furthermore, China suffers from many internal problems particularly those related to the great disparity between its application of the capitalist conceptions in the economic field while continuing to preserve its one- party regime according to the socialist sayings. Such matter leaves negative reflections on the economic performance and on the country' s ability to enhance its position on the international arena.

The current form of the relations between China and Africa needs various modifications to achieve a greater degree of balance in the commercial exchange relations between the two sides. It is illogical that china Criticizes the western pattern while it applies it completely in its unbalances relations with the African countries, in which China occupies the lion' s share of the gains. The cheaper and relatively better quality imports from China cause a destruction to the limited industrial structures in many African countries.

Sino-African Relations
a theoritical frame and some applications

 

The first few years of the new century witness a continuation of complex and profound changes in the international situation and further advance of globalization. Peace and development remain the main themes of our times. Safeguarding peace, promoting development and enhancing cooperation, which is the common desire of all peoples, represents the irresistible historical trend. On the other hand, destabilizing factors and uncertainties in the international situation are on the rise. Security issues of various kinds are interwoven. Peace remains evasive and development more pressing.

China, the largest developing country in the world, follows the path of peaceful development and pursues an independent foreign policy of peace. China stands ready to develop friendly relations and cooperation with all countries on the basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence so as to contribute to peace, stability and common prosperity around the world.
The African continent, which encompasses the largest number of developing countries, is an important force for world peace and development. China-Africa traditional friendly relations face fresh opportunities under the new circumstances.

Part I: Africa's Position and Role
Africa has a long history, vast expanse of land, rich natural resources and huge potential for development. After long years of struggle, the African people freed themselves from colonial rule, wiped out apartheid, won independence and emancipation, thus making significant contribution to the progress of civilization.

Following their independence, countries in Africa have been conscientiously exploring a road to development suited to their national conditions and seeking peace, stability and development by joint efforts. Thanks to the concerted efforts of African countries and the Organization of African Unity (OAU)/the African Union (AU), the political situation in Africa has been stable on the whole, regional conflicts are being gradually resolved and economy has been growing for years. The NEPAD has drawn up an encouraging picture of African rejuvenation and development. African countries have actively participated in the South-South cooperation and worked for the North-South dialogue. They are playing an increasingly important role in international affairs.

Africa still faces many challenges on its road of development. However, with the persistent efforts of African countries and the continuous support of the international community, Africa will surely surmount difficulties and achieve rejuvenation in the new century.

Part II: China's Relations with Africa
China-Africa friendship is embedded in the long history of interchange. Sharing similar historical experience, China and Africa have all along sympathized with and supported each other in the struggle for national liberation and forged a profound friendship.

The founding of the People's Republic of China and the independence of African countries ushered in a new era in China-Africa relations. For over half a century, the two sides have enjoyed close political ties and frequent exchange of high-level visits and people-to-people contacts. The bilateral trade and economic cooperation have grown rapidly; cooperation in other fields has yielded good results; and consultation and coordination in international affairs have been intensified. China has provided assistance to the best of its ability to African countries, while African countries have also rendered strong support to China on many occasions.

Sincerity, equality and mutual benefit, solidarity and common development-these are the principles guiding China-Africa exchange and cooperation and the driving force to lasting China-Africa relations.

Part Ill: China's African Policy
Enhancing solidarity and cooperation with African countries has always been an important component of China's independent foreign policy of peace. China will carry forward the tradition of China-Africa friendship, and, proceeding from the fundamental interests of both the Chinese and African peoples, establish and develop a new type of strategic partnership with Africa, featuring political equality and mutual trust, economic win-win cooperation and cultural exchange. The general principles and objectives of China's African policy are as follows:

- Sincerity, friendship and equality. China adheres to the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, respects African countries' independent choice of the road of development and supports African countries' efforts to grow stronger through unity.

- Mutual benefit, reciprocity and common prosperity. China supports African countries' endeavor for economic development and nation building, carries out cooperation in various forms in the economic and social development, and promotes common prosperity of China and Africa.

- Mutual support and close coordination. China will strengthen cooperation with Africa in the UN and other multilateral systems by supporting each other's just demand and reasonable propositions and continue to appeal to the international community to give more attention to questions concerning peace and development in Africa.

- Learning from each other and seeking common development. China and Africa will learn from and draw upon each other's experience in governance and development, strengthen exchange and cooperation in education, science, culture and health. Supporting African countries' efforts to enhance capacity building, China will work together with Africa in the exploration of the road of sustainable development.

The one China principle is the political foundation for the establishment and development of China's relations with African countries and regional organizations. The Chinese Government appreciates the fact that the overwhelming majority of African countries abide by the one China principle, refuse to have official relations and contacts with Taiwan and support China's great cause of reunification. China stands ready to establish and develop state-to-state relations with countries that have not yet established diplomatic ties with China on the basis of the one China principle.

Part IV Enhancing All-round Cooperation Between China and Africa
1. The political field
(1) High-level visits

China will maintain the momentum of mutual visits and dialogues between Chinese and African leaders, with a view to facilitating communication, deepening friendship and promoting mutual understanding and trust.

(2) Exchanges between legislative bodies
China favors increased multi-level and multi-channel friendly exchanges on the basis of mutual respect between China's National People's Congress (NPC) on the one hand and parliaments of African countries and the Pan-African Parliament of the AU on the other, for the purpose of deepening understanding and cooperation.

 
(3) Exchanges between political parties
The Communist Party of China (CPC) develops exchanges of various forms with friendly political parties and organizations of African countries on the basis of the principles of independence, equality, mutual respect and non-interference in each other's internal affairs. The purpose of such exchanges is to increase understanding and friendship and seek trust and cooperation.

(4) Consultation mechanisms
Mechanisms such as national bilateral committees between China and African countries, political consultation between foreign ministries. joint(mixed) committees on trade and economic cooperation and mixed committees on science and technology should be established and improved, so as to institutionalize dialogue and consultation in a flexible and pragmatic manner.

(5) Cooperation in international affairs
China will continue to strengthen solidarity and cooperation with African countries on the international arena, conduct regular exchange of views, coordinate positions on major international and regional issues and stand for mutual support on major issues concerning state sovereignty, territorial integrity, national dignity and human rights. China supports African nations' desire to be an equal partner in international affairs. China is devoted, as are African nations, to making the UN play a greater role, defending the purposes and principles of the UN Charter, establishing a new international political and economic order featuring justice, rationality, equality and mutual benefit, promoting more democratic international relationship and rule of law in international affairs and safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of developing countries.

(6) Exchanges between local governments
China's Central Government attaches importance to the exchanges between local governments of China and African countries, vigorously supports twin province/state and twin city relationship aimed at facilitating bilateral exchanges and cooperation in local development and administration.

2. The economic field
(1) Trade
The Chinese government will adopt more effective measures to facilitate African commodities' access to Chinese market and fulfill its promise to grant duty-free treatment to some goods from the least developed African countries, with a view to expanding and balancing bilateral trade and optimizing trade structure. It intends to settle trade disputes and frictions properly through bilateral or multilateral friendly consultation, mutual understanding and mutual accommodation. Efforts will be made to encourage business communities on both sides to set up China-Africa Joint Chamber of Commerce and Industry. When conditions are ripe, China is willing to negotiate Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with African countries and African regional organizations.

(2) Investment
The Chinese government encourages and supports Chinese enterprises' investment and business in Africa, and will continue to provide preferential loans and buyer credits to this end. The Chinese Government is ready to explore new channels and new ways for promoting investment cooperation with African countries, and will continue to formulate and improve relevant policies, provide guidance and service and offer convenience. African countries are welcome to make investment in China. The Chinese government will continue to negotiate, conclude and implement the Agreement on Bilateral Facilitation and Protection of Investment and the Agreement on Avoidance of Double Taxation with African Countries. The two sides should work together to create a favorable environment for investment and cooperation and protect the legitimate rights and interests of investors from both sides.

(3) Financial cooperation
To further develop China-Africa cooperation in the area of finance, the Chinese Government will support the effort of Chinese financial institutions to increase exchanges and cooperation with their counterparts in African countries as well as regional financial institutions in Africa.

(4) Resources cooperation
The Chinese Government facilitates information sharing and cooperation with Africa in resources areas. It encourages and supports competent Chinese enterprises to cooperate with African nations in various ways on the basis of the principle of mutual benefit and common development, to develop and exploit rationally their resources, with a view to helping African countries to translate their advantages in resources to competitive strength, and realize sustainable development in their own countries and the continent as a whole.

(5) Debt reduction and relief
China is ready to continue friendly consultation with some African countries with a view to seek solution to, or reduction of, the debts they owe to China. It will urge the international community, developed countries in particular, to take more substantial action on the issue of debt reduction and relief for African nations.

(6) Economic assistance
In light of its own financial capacity and economic situation, China will do its best to provide and gradually increase assistance to African nations with no political strings attached.

(7) Multilateral cooperation
China is ready to enhance consultation and coordination with Africa within multilateral trade systems and financial institutions and work together to urge the UN and other international organizations to pay more attention to the question of economic development, promote South-South cooperation, push forward the establishment of a just and rational multilateral trade system and make the voices of developing countries heard in the decision-making of international financial affairs. It will step up cooperation with other countries and international organizations to support the development of Africa and help realize Millennium Development Goals in Africa.

(8) People-to-people exchange
China will encourage and facilitate the exchanges between people's organizations of China and Africa, especially the youth and women, with a view to increasing the understanding, trust and cooperation of people on both sides. It will encourage and guide Chinese volunteers to serve in African countries.

Sino Ethiopian Relations
between A Chinese Perspective
and An Ethiopian ambitions

 


The last decade has ushered us in a new stage of all- round development of the bilateral relations between China and Ethiopia, especially since the exchange of visits between President Jiang Zemin and Prime Minister Meles Zenawi. Ever after the dawn of the new millennium, bilateral ties have registered new progress with the joint efforts of both sides, among others, in the political, economic and cultural fields. The political ties between our two countries have been placed on a firmer foundation. The economic and trade cooperation has been consolidated with ever-enriching form and content, and the cooperation in other fields has also been booming. As stated in the Foreign Affairs and National Security Policy and Strategy of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, “currently China has very good relation with Ethiopia”.

 

The document adds, “we should pay special attention to the strengthening of relations with China. It also demonstrates that the Ethiopian government has attached great attention to our bilateral relationship. It can be concluded that the bilateral ties have entered a new stage highlighted by the deepening cooperation and that our relationship is exhibiting more maturity and stability.

Exchanges of high-level visits have maintained the momentum. Bilateral political relatioinhip has become closer. The two sides have kept close consultations on a series of prominent international issues and cooperated closely and supported each other. Ethiopia in collaboration with the Chinese side, had hosted the 2nd Ministerial Conference of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperalion (FOCAC) in December, 2003. This was the first time for the Ministerial Conference of FOCAC to be held on the African continent. Thus it has profound significance.

Both sides has cooperated closely in the preparation of the conference. The conference was a great success.

The bilateral economic and trade cooperation has become a “shining spot” in the bilateral ties. In the new era, economic and trade cooperation has assumed more and more importance in international relations. In the last few years, both sides have been innovative in expanding the concrete formalities of our mutually beneficial economic and trade cooperation and have achieved commendable results.

 

This can be regarded as a role model in “South-South Cooperation”. Here' I we can record 4 points. First, the economic aid of China is taking on creative forms with positive results. China, being a developing country itself, has kept providing assistance within its limits to Ethiopia since the establishment of the bilateral diplomatic relations.

 

In recent years, adapting to the focus of Ethiopian economic development strategy, China has put a greater share of its limited financing resources in helping the Ethiopian “software” build-up. This was instead of simply focusing on physical projects, supply of goods and debt reduction as is the case in predominantly traditional aid delivery. A case in point is that China, drawing from its aid resources to Ethiopia, has allocated 12 million US dollars to finance the construction of the Ethiopian WET College. China has also provided Ethiopia with consultancy on its textile industry development. Secondly, our bilateral trade volume had reached 100 million USD in 2002.

Thirdly, Chinese companies, using their competitiveness, are widely participating in infrastructure development, particularly in roads upgrading, hydroelectricity generation and telecommunications etc. Besides, they have achieved win-win results. Finally, our cooperation is moving into broader fields. The Chinese side is actively involved in the Ethiopian capacity building effort, particularly the agricultural and non-agricultural TVET, and has launched various training courses for specialized technicians.

 

So far 200 Chinese teachers have successively given WET courses all around Ethiopia and their work is highly commended by the Ethiopian leadership. Moreover, Chinese companies are venturing into the field of management contracting of the Ethiopian enterprises' and new ways of trilateral cooperation together with international organizations such as FAO. It can be concluded that the ever enlarging scale and expanding forms of cooperation have not only made the contents of bilateral economic and trade relations richer and more substantial, but also helped to further consolidate the foundation of the bilateral relations in the new century.

Bilateral cultural and educational cooperation has also experienced sound development. Cultural exchanges played a pioneering role and are still playing a very important role in Sino-Ethiopian relations. The frequent visits of art, media and education delegations have meaningful contribution to the deepening of the mutual understanding and friendship as well as the enrichment of the spiritual and cultural life of the two peoples.

The Chinese government always supports the Ethiopian struggle for peace and development and its positive role in promoting African integration and regional peace and stability. The bilateral military exchanges have resumed gradually after the end of the Ethio-Eritrean conflict. China has recently decided to provide logistic assistance within its capability to the Ethiopian peacekeeping forces deployed in Burundi under the aegis of the AU.

In the context of the dramatic and continuous changes in the international situation, the encouraging momentum in the Sino-Ethiopian relations maintained so far may be attributed to the following main reasons:

First, China and Ethiopia share similar national conditions and are both faced with the same historical task of vigorously developing their economies. In the last century, both countries had encountered the same historical problems, i.e.: how to transform themselves from traditional societies with ancient civilizations to modern societies. Up to now, both countries are in the process of transforming themselves from agricultural societies to industrial ones and are striving to step into the information age. Therefore, both countries need to properly utilize all opportunities to meet the challenges poised by the economic globalization so as to realize sustainable economic development and poverty reduction.

Secondly, both the Chinese and Ethiopian governments attach great importance to their relationship. The Ethiopian government regards China as a partner in development instead of a donor, and devotes itself to the development of mutually beneficial cooperation with China in the framework of South-South Cooperation, so as to create the conditions necessary for absorbing both Chinese experience and Chinese investment.

Thirdly , China and Ethiopia share a wide range of common understanding regarding the modalities and priorties of mutual cooperation. As the largest developing country with a population of 1.3 billion, China is in the position to understand the urgent needs of Africa for the following reasons China has already accumulated rich experience, practical technology and know-how in the areas where African countries are focusing their attention, such as rural and industrial development, capacity building and poverty reduction, etc. Furthermore, China has the political will of actively supporting and promoting the China-Africa cooperation. In addition, China abounds with a large number of high- quality talents and an ever-growing team of sophisticated entrepreneurs. All these advantages mentioned above could render a strong driving force to the expanding and deepening of China-Ethiopian political and economic cooperation.

Fourthly, both sides have reached some consensus on common interests and registered win-win results. The Ethiopian Government sets the tapping of human resources, capacity building and infrastructure as the top priority, and it pays attention to the Chinese experience in these areas. Therefore, China will, in its bilateral ties with Ethiopia, maximize its strengths and minimize its weaknesses, and try to meet the practical needs of Ethiopia so as to make the cooperation more compatible

to the Ethiopian strategy of development. In fact, China and Ethiopia have already achieved a number of positive results in areas such as capacity building, project contracting, etc. These practices have convinced me that China can play a unique role in the development of Ethiopia and in expanding the channels of mutual cooperation between our two countries. 

First, we should further strengthen our political relationship, which would foster a more conducive atmosphere for the bilateral cooperation. China has consistently attached great importance to developing its relation with African countries including Ethiopia. Ethiopia is a big country in the Horn of Africa. It plays a very unique and important role in both the sub-region and the continent as a whole. In the coming December, H.E. Mr. Won Jiabao, Premier of the State Council of China, will come to Ethiopia to attend the Second Ministerial Conference of FOCAC.

 

 We firmly believe that His Excellency's upcoming visit will bring new impetus to the development of bilateral relations, and it will become another great event in the history of Simo.Ethiopian relations. Through high level exchange of visits, and the promotion of the dynamic province-state relations, bilateral political relations will be further developed, and serving to create a good atmosphere for solid cooperation.

Secondly, we should fully exploit the new opportunities in the fields of economic, trade and investment cooperation between our two countries. The Chinese Government is vigorously carrying out the “Going Abroad” strategy to promote the overseas development of Chinese enterprises. As a result, more Chinese enterprises which are competent in operation, good at management and familiar with the African market situation will come to Africa. In connection with this, more and more Chinese enterprises will be attracted to seek business in Ethiopia along with the improvement of the investment environment. The two countries should also strive to make use of the complementary advantages, and to loin hands to exploit opportunities in the international market. For instance, by utilizing the preferential trade treatment provided by AGOA and the like, we could promote the export of Ethiopia's textile products, garment and flower, so as to realize our common benefits.

Thirdly, we should further expand the cooperation in experience sharing, exploiting the advantages on both sides. The “Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI)” and the food security strategies are key elements in the overall development strategy of Ethiopia in the coming years. The Chinese government will fully utilize its experience and comparative advantages in the areas of agriculture, rural development, food production and disease prevention so as to maintain the momentum of transferring China's appropriate and applicable technologies to the Ethiopian side. China is also determined to contribute its part in the implementation of the above strategies in a more constructive way and to make its unique contribution to the great undertakings of industrialization and food security of Ethiopia.

Fourthly, we should further enrich and expand the mutual cooperation in other fields. The chinese side will adopt concrete measures to expand exchange and cooperation in the areas of education, culture, health etc. It should also strengthen the people-to-people communication so as to exploit new cooperative areas and to make the bilateral relations more meaningful.

In 40 days from now on, the Second Ministerial Conference of FOCAC will be held in Addis Ababa. Many political leaders and business elites from both China and African countries will gather here for the splendid occasion, and discuss the prospect of the mutual cooperation between China and Africa. By making use of the Forum, the Chinese side would like to promote cooperation in agriculture, human resources development and capacity building. Furthermore, it will help shape the Sino-Ethiopian relationship as a successful case in China-African relations in the new century. This will widen the bilateral relations in areas like politics, economics, etc. It will also raise the relationship to a new level and contribute to the rejuvenation of the African continent.

Contacts between Ethiopia and Asian countries date back to ancient times. Some scholars attribute the early contacts of China with the Horn and especially with Ethiopia to two factors. First, that the Chinese were importing rhinoceroses from Abyssinia. Second, that there was a degree of phonetic similarity between Hough Chih (then Chinese language) and Ge.eze(the then literary language) of Ethiopia.

Ethiopa had early contacts and historical relations with Asian countries as a whole, though less documented than those with the west, were important and enduring. Currently, China has very good relation with Ethiopia. It strongly supports Ethiopian's economic development endeavors. It shares its development experience and provides technical exsport. In the politic and diplomatic sphere, too, China has been a good friend of Ethiopia. It strives to do what it can to maintain peace and stability in the Horn of Africa.

The establishment of diplomatic relations and the stand Ethiopia has taken in recognizing that the Government of the People's Republic of China as the only legal government representing the entire Chinese people and Ethiopia's support to the restoration of all legitimate rights to the same in the United Nations fora have reinforced the friendly relations of the two countries.

Ethiopia always accords special attention to the strengthening of relations with China. Ethiopia needs to fully utilize Chinese development experience as well as training and technical assistance opportunities.

Never in modern history has a nation successfully made such determined and massive effort as China has in achieving progress within such a short span of time.

Ethiopia has been following this remarkable achievement with great interest and admiration.

China and Ethiopia are, although in varying degrees, developing countries. There is a large measure of identity in their aspirations and expectations. On the Ethiopian side there is plenty to learn from the Chinese experience. China is, for example, developing technologies that are more compatible to the needs of developing countries.

We witness in China a profound and far-reaching transformation, which has led to unprecedented economic and social progress. Trade between the two countries can further be enhanced for the mutual benefit of the two countries. Cooperation in the cultural field is also another area, which greatly benefits both countries.

Enhancing International Cooperation

China and Ethiopia can work together in order to find solutions to the most pressing problems facing the world today. Poverty alleviation and terrorism are two of these problems the solutions of which need goodwill and sincere efforts from all countries. China has a special role to play in world affairs role commensurate with its stature as a great nation speaking and acting for one fourth of mankind. No one can afford to pretend any longer that lasting solutions to these problems can be found without the active participation of China.

The world is beset with seemingly intractable problems, the solution of which requires the co-operation of all states, big and small. Some of these are, indeed, so crucial to peace that co-operation is not a luxury but a duty. Under such a situation it is in the interest of China and Ethiopia to step up their consultation and cooperation with regard to problems that affect humanity.

It is believed that there is a solid basis in this area on which the two countries can work together as they both subscribe to principles of mutual respect for national sovereignty and territorial integrity, peaceful coexistence and non-interference in the internal affairs of other states.

It is also sincerely hoped that, in the days ahead, Ethiopia and China will enhance their cooperation and further the cause of peace and progress.

China has strongly supported the objectives of NEPAD which is a magnificent commitment by African leaders to end conflicts and accelerate development. China's support for NEPAD is an earnest respect to the will of Africans themselves to make the 21'st century the “African Century”.

Landmarks in Sino-Ethiopian Relations

With the above summary as background, it is proper to pay attention to landmarks in the relations of the two countries. Although contacts date back to ancient times, diplomatic relations started in 1970. Relations during the time of Emperor Haile Selasse had been mainly influenced by the Ethiopian position of supporting” One China Policy”. This poiicy has been firmly followed by Ethiopia since then.

The Status of Current Relations

The relations during and after the Transitional Government of Ethiopia have been enhanced as Ethiopia took steps to revamp it. Premier Meles Zenawi visited China in 1995 and that was reciprocated by the visit of Chinese President in 1997.Other high-level visits were also exchanged. The friendship between Ethiopia and China has always been characterized by reciprocal considerations of the interests of both sides and by steadfast commitment to principles.

Ethiopia believes that China can support Ethiopia's development endeavor in the following areas:

• Agriculture
•Human Resources Development
•Health and Medical Care
• Infrastructure
• Trade and Investment

Agriculture

Agriculture is the main sector of Ethiopia's economy. It is worthy of note that agrarian economies, like that of Ethiopia which has a poverty reduction strategy based on Agriculture Development. Led industrialization (ADLI) strategy, can benefit enormously from experience of and close cooperation with China. Here, the transfer of appropriate technology is critical.

Trade

The rapid increase of trade volume and the rise in the number of business travelers are positive indicators in the relations of the two countries.
Human Resources Development

Ethiopia highly values the strong bondage with China in the area of human resources development. China is already playing a prominent role in the area of technical and vocational education and training  It is hoped that China will continue supporting Ethiopian institutions of higher learning.

Health Sector

Chinese experience in the prevention and treatment of communicable and infectious diseases and its research and handling of HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis will definitely be emulated by Ethiopia. It is hoped that China will continue to send medical teams to Ethiopia.

International Affairs

The two sides will continue to strengthen their coordination and mutual support in the area of multilateral diplomacy. China, as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, is always expected to stand by the African countries at the UN and other international forums and support proposals and positions of the African Union.

Both Ethiopia and China stand for democracy in international relations and for enhanced role of the UN. Both are committed to combating international terrorism and promoting sustainable development through poverty reduction and elimination.

There is a broad prospect for bilateral trade and economic and technological cooperation. Both countries have a long history and splendid culture and stand for more cultural exchanges and mutual enrichment. Ethiopia is committed to a long-term partnership with China.

Economic Cooperation

Ethiopia highly values more Chinese development assistance, especially in poverty alleviation, capacity building and medical health care.

China-Africa Cooperation Forum

Since the holding of the Ministerial Conference of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation at Beijing in 2000, the two sides have maintained frequent exchanges of high-level visits, which have led to a new upsurge of high-level political dialogue and cooperation.

China supports Africa's effort to prevent and control terrorism, including its adoption of a counter-terrorist convention and the establishment of a center of study on terrorism.

China assists, under the framework of the forum on China-Africa Cooperation, African countries in realizing their objectives of peace and development. China is expected, through the Forum, to take concerted efforts to strengthen cooperation with African countries in priority sectors identified under NEPAD. Areas of support include infrastructure development as well as prevention and treatment of communicable and infectious disease such as HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis.