Egypt a Civilization of Law and Legislation

Over a span of 50 centuries, the banks of the Nile was the scene of one of the oldest civilisations in history, The ancient Egyptians forged out their own genuine unprecedented laws, legislations and administrative regulations, which continually progressed with time.
Legal and legislative texts were found on the walls of palaces and temples or papyri written in hieroglyphic, demotic, Coptic, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Aramic and Arabic.
Among the modern world, Egypt is the most ancient country as far as the legal systems are concerned.

Menes and the Unified State:
Along centuries, Egyptian civilizations flourished, based on strongly established foundations in administration and government systems.
About 5200 years ago, King Menes laid down the oldest legislative systems in human history when he issued the law of "Tehut", god of wisdom, as the only law applicable all over Egypt. He also made "Memphis", the capital of first unified and centralized state in history, with an organized system of government, administration, judiciary, education, police, army, etc..
Ancient Egyptian antiquities speak much of how advanced their government and administrative systems were. The king (Pharaoh) was the Head of the State who appointed the Great Treasurer or Tax Collector. Local government was successfully applied in Egypt since the time of the Old Kingdom.
The king controled the executive and judicial powers and exercised his executive power with the assistance of many civil servants. However, his powers in selecting those aides were not absolute. He had to abide by the legal rules of seniority and literacy level.

Legislation in the Old Kingdom:
In the old kingdom, the state institutions were clearly defined with specified duties either in the royal court, government or the administrative machinery or the consultative councils. The ministerial posts were established later.
Major Features of Legislation and Common Law in this Kindom:

1- Royal Court:
As the unified state in the old kingdom was firmly established, the king's authorities grew wider. Consequently, the royal court and the status and terms of reference of court staff gained more importance ranging from religious, civil, judicial and military duties.

2- Central Government:
The central government was headed by the king who was assisted by a number of civil servants. Government executives were subject to a complete, administrative hierarchy. It is worth noting that this legal system was obligatory and binding to the king whose powers in selecting and promoting civil servants were restricted.

3- Advisors:
The advisor was the highest official in the state and the head but not a member of the government's higher council or the council of big ten.

4- Council of Big Ten:
Since the 3rd Dynasty, the council, known also as the higher council of the government, comprised senior state officials in addition to certain army commanders and one of the royal sons. This council controlled the state administrative machinery and ensured the enforcement of legislations and royal decrees. Starting the Fifth Dynasty, it assumed judiciary functions.

5- Ministers:
With the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty, certain laws, legislations and reforms were introduced to the government and the state administrative machinery. Of these, the most significant was the introduction of the position of the judge of royal porte, the ancient equivalent of a minister, that was a civilian rather than a military position .

6- State Central Administrative Machinery:
State central administrative machinery comprised a number of large departments assigned all administrative functions of the state, including the King's House, with branches in every province, responsible for the state administrative services. It comprised departments of special importance such as the royal mail department which ensured that royal orders were properly communicated. Other departments included financial, royal worship, public works , tax , water and the army.
Personal Status Legal System in the Old Kingdom
At this stage of Egyptian legal and legislative history individualism was the dominant trend. Every individual had the right to acquire any property of his choice. Disposition of property was a guaranteed right to owner.

Personal status legal system provided for the follolwing :
1- Each Egyptian had the right to marry only one woman.
2- Woman is equal to man and she has the right to have her own property and enter into sale or purchase contracts.
3- Father's wealth shall be inherited equally by his sons and daughters, without distinction between males and femels.
4- Every man is free to make his own will.
5-Slavery was not sanctioned by the Egyptian law at that time.
6 - Neighbouring landlords normally shared water for irrigation.

Legislations and Decrees
Since the 3rd and 4th Dynasties of the Old Kingdom, many decrees and legislations were issued including one specifying farmer's working hours and another abolishing forced labour.
One can easily figure out how advanced and diversified were state functions upon reading the inscriptions on the chief minister walls of the tomb of "Rakhmiraa", the chief minister and chief judge of king Thutmose III at Thebes. The most prominent example is a text in hieroglyphic of a marriage contract between king Ramsis II and the daughter of a Hithite king on the occasion of concluding a peace treaty between both kingdoms during the modern kingdom (1570 BC-1304 BC); the first and most ancient in history.

Civil Legislation
Under the New Kingdom, king "Horemheb" was as one of the most important legislators in history. His legislations were typically marked with a civil rather than a religious nature. . His legislations, dating back to the 18th Dynasty (circa 1330 BC) were the first to enshrine public freedoms and rights. He also emphasized the concept of public posts as a means to serve rather than to overpower the people.
Another example is a mural representing the punishment of tax evaders, found in the tomb of Princess "Aidot" in Saqara, considered to be the oldest tax legislation in history.
A parinting was found showing the king introduce "Maa'it", the symbol of justice and law, to the gods in clear reference to the sanctity of the concepts and values of justice and rule of law.
Another painting from the Ptolemic era (332 BC-30 BC) reperesented Ibis, the symbol of the god of wisdom Tehut, holding a symbolic feather of justice.

Despite the harsh conditions under the Roman rule, Egyptians managed to maintain most of their traditions, rules and customs until the advent of Christianity into Egypt during the first half of the 1st century AD.The Egyptian church contributed to the establishment of several rules and traditions. Under the Islamic era, systems of government and legislation were derived from the Holy Qura'an and the Sunna (Traditions) of Prophet Muhammad based on the shura (consultative) principle; an essential principle of government in Islam.
Under Fatimid Caliphate (969 AD-1171 AD), systems of government and legislation progressed. Under the Ayyobid era (1171-1250 AD), the Citadel became the seat of power. A variety of legislative and judiciary councils were set up, including a council of justice and a council for grievances; etc. These councils were mandated, inter alia, to issue legislations and laws and conclude treaties with foreign countries.

Under the Mameluk era (1250 AD-1517 AD), Sultan az-Zhaher Beibers built the "House of Justice" (Dar el-Adl) The Ruling Council was mandated, inter alia, to issue and enforce legislations, settle disputes and conduct negotiations with neighbouring countries.
Under the Ottoman era (1517 AD-1805 AD), the judicary system was based on Sharia (Islamic law) courts, This situation prevailed up to the end of the 18th century.
At the close of the 18th century, Egypt witnessed significant political and social developments. In 179 , Cairo witnessed the first socio- political uprising triggered by the oppression and injustice by the Ottoman ruler (Wali) and the Mameluks.
This situation culminated in the eliciting by religious (Ulema) and popular leaders from the Ottoman ruler (Wali) and Mamelukes of a deed in writing which was the first "Magnacarta of Egypt". This deed clearly regulated individual- authority relationship stipulating that no taxes or penalties should be imposed unless authorized by al Azhar Ulamas in their capacity as representatives of the people.

In May,1805, Egypt witnessed the first mature democratic revolution of the modern age. That revolution was led by al Azhar with the involvement of all categories of people. " In the name of the people", the leaders of the revolution appointed Muhammad Ali Pasha as "Wali"- ruler of Egypt. Muhammad Ali was declared ruler under the "conditions of the people" which involved the concept that "the nation is the source of authority".
Once the sole ruler of Egypt, Mohammad Ali started total administrative revolution to found modern institutions of government including a modern representative council.

In 1824, the "High Council", considered to be the real beginning of the first parliament was established, with most members elected..
The Advisory Council
The success of the High Council led to the establishment in 1829 of another council; the Advisory Council. Regarded as the nucleus of the Consultative (Shura) system.,The Advisory Council was convoked to give counsel on matters related to education, administration and public works. In 1830, a package of standing orders for the council was issued. In 1833, the Advisory Council enacted its own law, defining the term of the council's sessions as well as deliberations and decision-making procedures.

In 1837, Muhammad Ali issued the basic statutes of the state, whereby the Advisory Council was repealed and replaced with two new councils: the "Special Council" for issuing laws and the "Public Council" for discussing matters reffered thereto by the government, which was itself organized into seven main Diwans (ministries).

Advisory Council of Representatives
The year 1866 witnessed the most crucial step of enhancing the parliamentary life in Egypt by establishing the "Advisory Council of Representatives" during Khedive Ismail's region. This council was the first parliament with representative functions, rather than just a consultative council.
The statute covered election system and legal requiredments for eligibility of candidates and duration of sessions. The council was authorized to "discuss internal affairs and submit recommendations to the Khedive".
The Advisory Council of Representatives was composed of 75 members elected by dignitaries of major cities well as mayors and deputy-mayors in other provinces. The speaker of the Council was appointed by a Khedivi decree.
The term of the Council was 3 years during which it was convened for two months a year. The Council of Representatives held 9 sessions over 3 parliamentary formations.

As time passed, the powers of the Council gradually expanded and embryonic opposition trends started to emerge, actuated by the wide circulation of enlightenment ideas by a group of major intellectuals and writers in addition to the rise of newspapers; this added strength to public demands for a parliament with wider legislative and control powers.
This led to the creation in 1878 of the first Council of Ministers in Egypt, and the re-institution of the parliament.

In June 1879, the statute of the council of representatives was submitted to the Khedive for promulgation, The most important points in the proposed statute provided for "ministerial responsibility" and wider authority for the council in financial affairs. However, Khedivi Tawfiq, appointed on June 26,1879, rejected the statute and dissolved the council. Yet, the Council continued to hold sessions until July 1879.

House of Representatives:
On September 1, 1881, the Orabi Revolution broke out demanding, inter alia, the establishment of a House of Representatives. Elections for the House were actually held in accordance with the regulations of the council of representatives issued in 1866. The new House of Representatives was opened on December 26,1881 and the government presented a draft statute for approval by the Ottoman Sultan which was granted on Februrary 7,1882. According to the new statute, the cabinet was accountable to the publicly elected House which had also the power of legislation and the right of interpellation. Its term was extended to 5 years with 3 months meeting sessions.
However, the House did not last long. In 1882, Britain occupied Egypt and repealed its statute and in 1883, a so-called regulatory law was promulgated resulting in a set back to parliamentary life in Egypt.

Advisory Council of Laws
The so-called regulatory law, promulgated in 1833 stipulated that the Egyptian parliament was bicameral, consisting of "Advisory Council of Law" and "The General Assembly". The law also established the provincial councils with administrative rather than legislative functions. But they were also concerned with electing the members of the Advisory Council of laws.
The Advisory Council of Laws consisted of 30 members of whom 14 were appointed and 16 elected.for a term of 6 years. The General Assembly consisted of 83 members of whom 46 were elected and the remaining members on ex-officio basis, The speaker of Advisory Council of laws chaired the General Assembly. The two councils convened from 1883 to 1913 in 31 sessions.

The Legislative Assembly
In July, 1913, both councils were repealed. A Legislative Assembly was established, consisting of 83 members of whom 66 were elected and 17 appointed.
According to a regulatory law, issued on July 1,1913, the term of the legislative Assembly was 6 years. The Assembly continued in effect from January 22,1914 to June 17,1914.
In December, 1914, Britain declared Egypt as a protectorate. The meetings of the Assembly in 1915 were indefinitely adjourned and in 1915 "the regulatory Law" was repealed and the Legislative Assembly abolished in April 1923.

Egypt a Civilization of Law and Legislation

Parliamentary Life under the 1923 Constitution:
In 1919, the Egyptian revolution broke out calling for freedom, independence and a full democratic parliamentary life in Egypt.
This revolution led to the promulgation of the February 28,1922 Declaration, recognizing Egypt as a sovereign independent state with some reservations, as well as pledging an end to the Britich protectorateship of Egypt.
The 1923 Constitution adopted a parliamentary system based on the separation and cooperation between authorities. It regulated the relationship between the legislative and executive authorities along the principle of checks and balances. Accordingly, the government was accountable to the parliament which has the right to move a vote of no confidence against it. On the other hand, the Constitution gave the king the right to convoke and dissolve the parliament. However, the parliament had the right to be in session in accordance with the constitution if not convoked in due course of time.

The 1923 Constitution provided for a bicameral parliament; composed of two houses: the senate and the House of Representatives. All members of the House of Representatives, were to be elected for a term of 5 years. As for the senate, three-fifth of the members were to be elected and the other two-fifth to be appointed. The Constitution adopted the principle of equal competence for both houses, as a general rule with a few exceptions.
The membership of both houses was expanded from time to time as the Constitution adopted the principle of determining the number of members at a specific percentage of total population. Under the 1923 Constitution for example, the House of Representatives over the period from 1924 to 1930 had 214 members who later rose to 235.

 Although the parliament stipulated by 1923 Constitution was an advanced step towards parliamentary life in Egypt, in actual practice it suffered from numeraus negative aspects. Political life oscillated between limited periods of high democratic and popular tide to periods of low ebb caused by the interference of the occupation authorities and the palace, resulting in dissolving the parliament about ten times. In 1930, a new constitution was promulgated. The constitution which was a real setback to the democratic life remained in effect until the 1923 Constitution was re-instituted in 1935.
Due to internal and external reasons, constitutional conditions deteriorated so dramatically that, when the 1952 Revolution broke out, they had already reached their lowest ebbs. That period was characterized, to a great extent, by so such political and governmental instability that the period 1923-1952 witnessed the succession of 40 cabinets and cabinet reshuffles.

Parliamentary Life in Egypt after 1952 Revolution:
Following the abolition of monarchy, dissolution of parties and declaration of the republican regime, the July 1952 Revolution adopted the goal of "establishing a proper democratic life" as one of its basic tenets.
In 1956, a new constitution was promulgated, under which the National Assembly consisting of 350 elected members was formed in July 22, 1957. The Assembly remained in existence until February 10, 1958. In 1958, in view of the unity between Egypt and Syria, the 1956 Constitution was repealed and a provisional constitution for the United Arab Republic was passed in March 1958. Accordingly, a joint National Assembly composed of 600 appointed members (400 Egyptians and 200 Syrians) was formed. The Assembly, which met for the first time in July 21, 1960, remained active up to July 22, 1961. It was latter repealed following the secession of Syria from the United Arab Republic in September 28, 1961.

In March 1964, another provisional constitution was promulgated in Egypt, under which the National Assembly was formed, consisting of 350 elected members; at least half of them were workers and peasants, in addition to 10 representatives appointed by the President. These amendment reflected the socialist orientation expressed in the July 1961 socialist laws.
Under 1971 Constitution "The National Assembly" was renamed as the People's Assembly. In addition, a constitutional amendment approved by the 1980 referendum introduced another parliamentary house; the Shura (Consultative) Council. Thus, both chambers combined now represent the legislative authority. The Shura Council is mandated only to discuss overall policies without involving in approval or enacting legislations which, together with its control function, coustitutes the principal mandate of the People's Assmebly.

The Egyptian People's Assembly:
The People's Assembly exercises its competences and functions through 7 parliamentary organs: namely the Speaker, Assembly Bureau, Standing Committee, Ethics Committee, Specific fic Committees, Ad hoc and joint committees and the Parliamentary Division.
1- Speaker of the People's Assembly:
In the first meeting of its ordinary annual session, the People's Assembly elects a chairman and two deputies.
The Speaker is the representative and spokesman of the Assembly. He generally oversees good performance of the Assembly's functions. In addition, he opens, heads and declare as closed sessions, controls and steers discussions, puts forth issues for discussion and declares final resolutions to be passed by the Assembly.
2- The Assembly's Bureau:
This is the supervisory body in charge of organizing the Assembly's business and implementing its resolutions. Besides, it acts as liaison between the Assembly and other bodies and authorities. The Asembly's Bureau is composed of the Speaker of the Assembly and both deputies. It draws up, upon the opening of every ordinary session, an action plan for the Assembly and its committees and supervize implementation. The Bureau shall draw up agendas for the sessions in line with the approved action plan.
3- Standing Committee:
It is formed at the opening of every annual ordinary session, with the Speaker chairman, both deputies, chairmen of sector-specific committees, representatives of parties caucuses in addition to five members to be appointed by the Assembly's Bureau, of whom one shall be an independent assemblymen, should their number be no less than ten.
The Speaker shall convoke the Standing Committee, draw its agenda, steer its discussions. The Standing Committee is mandated to discuss public and important issues and matters which the President, Prime Minister or the Speaker of the People's Assembly may wish to exchange view with or keep the committee informed of. The committee shall also study periodical reports submitted by the Assembly's committees on follow-up of the enforcement of laws and public regulatory resolutions, important petitions and complaints that represent a general social, economic or political phenomenon as well as reports by control authorities on any public phenomenon posing a threat or encroachment upon the values of the society or those exposing loopholes in legistations or administrative systems and modalities of public departments, bodies or utilities, local administration or public sector units in addition to matters reverted thereto by the Ethics Committee.
4- The Ethics Committee:
The Committee is formed by a resolution of the Assembly, under the chairmanship of either deputy of the Assembly, with the membership of chairmen of the legislative and key committees of the Assembly, in addition to five members of the Standing Committee of whom two shall represent caucuses of opposition parties and independent assemblymen and five members, including one female member, to be elected by ballot.
The Ethics Committee is mandated to examine contraventions imputed to assemblymen, representing a violation of the religious, moral or social values and main political and economic principles of the Egyptian society. The committee shall also inflict a parliamentary penalty as appropriate.
5- Sector-Specific Committees:
These committees are composed of such number of members as may be proposed by the Assembly's Bureau. The Assembly has 18 sector-specific committees, namely ; legislative and constitutional affairs, economic affairs, foreign relations, Arab affairs, national defence and security and mobilization affairs, prepositions and complaints, manpower affairs, religious and social affairs and endowments , culture, information and tourism, local administration and popular organizations affairs and youth affairs.
These committees assist the Assembly in performing its various competences. They are actually the principal hives of business in the Assembly. They provide indepth and specialized studies, give opinions on draft laws, propositions of draft laws, resolutions and treaties as well as other subjects referred thereto by the Assembly. Thed committee's reports provide the basis for the Assembly's debates on subjects submitted for discussions.
Moreover, the committees, each, within its respective terms of refence, traces the effects of enforcing laws within their respective terms of refence and investigates extent of compliance by the executive decrees with the goals of the law. They shall submit reports to the Speaker of the Assembly on the results of their follow up as well as any such suggestions that deem fit. Furthermore, each of these committees shall, within its own jurisdiction, monitor statements made by ministers before the Assembly or the committees, in newspapers and mass media together with any pledges or programmes involved as well as recommendations issued by the committees or the Assembly. These committees shall, thereafter, submit reports to the Speaker of the Assembly showing how far such pledges and recommendations have been implemented.
6- Joint and Ad hoc Committees:
The People's Assembly may set up such ad hoc committees as may be proposed by the Speaker or as may be requested the government to study and discuss a draft law, a proposition for a draft law, a decree-law or a specific subject or issue, in addition to preparing and submitting reports on such issues to the Assembly. The Speaker shall select the chairman and members of ad hoc committee Joint committees are set up upon a proposal by the Spearker of the Assembly or at the request of the government, to study a specific subject. The resolutions passed by such committee shall not be valid unless approved by the majority of members.
7- Parliamentary Division :
The People's Assembly is the division of the Arab Republic of Egypt for international parliamentary conferences. The Division seeks to foster and enhance mutual relations with various world parliaments. The General Assembly of the Division is composed of all members of the People's Assmebly with the Speaker of the People's Assembly as chairman and both deputies in the same capacity.
The Assembly shall hold a periodical annual meeting in the form of a pliamentary division, during January every year, to look into issues related thereto.discuss its affairs.
The Egyptian Parliamentary Division always seeks to ensure effective presence at both international and regional parliamentary fora, through involvement in the activities of the Arab Parliamentary Union as well as international or African parliamentary unions especially within the framework of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. and effectiveness of parliamentary institutions all over the world.
The Egyptian Parliamentary Chapter and the Inter Parliamentary Union: in Close Affinity Immediately after the promulgation of the 1923 Constitution and the convention of the Egyptian parliament in 1924, the Egyptian parliament joined the International European Union. It has been always a basic principle of Egyptian policy to seek direct contacts with all international organizations with the object of resolving world problem by peaceful means and serving Egyptian interests and issues in particular.

IN 1938, Egypt requested to host one of the Inter-Parliamentary Union's conferences and in 1947, the 36th Inter-Parliamentary Conference was held in Egypt, hence the first parliamentary conference to be held in an Arab and African country. In 1997, the Egyptian Parliamentary Chapter hosted the 98th Inter-Parliamentary Conference. This coincided with radical changes affecting between world powers. To document these changes, the conference issued the Cairo World Declaration on Democracy.
In 1994, Dr. Fathi Srour, Speaker of the Egyptian People's Assembly was elected chairman of the Inter-Parliamentary Union for a term of three years. This election reflected world appreciation of Egypt's outstanding status. Furthermore, in January 1998, Dr. Srour was elected for a term of two years chairman of the Arab Parliamentary Union. He is the first Egyptian to assume this office.
Major Competences of the People's Assembly:
1- Legislation:
It is the main competence of the assembly as it endorses and enacts laws in all fields.
2- Control:
The established means of control for the Assembly consist of querries, requests for briefing, interpellation, requests for public discussion, propositions of resolutions, fact-finding committees, petitions and complaints, no confidence motions against the deputy premiers and monitoring by the council of local administration affairs.
According to Constitution the People's Assembly, based on a motion by at least two-thirds of its members has the right to impeach the president. The impeachment bill shall be issued by a two-third majority vote.
The People's Assembly also has the right, based on a motion by at least one-fifth of its members, to commit ministers to trial for any crimes committed thereby during the course or because of discharging the functions of their posts. The indictment bill shall be issued by a two-thrid majority vote.
3- Nominating of the President:
The People's Assembly shall nominate the president, based on a motion by at least one-third of the Assembly members. Then, the candidate who wins a two-third majority vote shall be put to public referundum. Should such candidate fail to win the forementioned majority a second run of such nomination shall be made two days after the announcement of the first ballot result.
4- Discussing the President's Statement and the Cabinet Policy Statement:

The President shall give a statement on the overall state policy upon the opening of the ordinary session of the People's Assembly. The Assembly may discuss the contents of the President's statement if a majority of its members so agrees. Following the formation of the cabinet or upon the opening of the ordinary session of the People's Assembly, the Prime Minister shall present the cabinet's policy platform.
This statement shall be referred to an ad hoc committee for study and reporting. The committee report and discussions shall be referred to the government to take necessary actions in respect of recommendations contained therein. In forming such ad hoc committee, it should taken into consideration that caucuses of opposition parties and independent members shall be represented.

5- Amendment of the Constitution:
Both the President and the People's Assembly may request one or more articles of the Constitution to be amended. Should such request be made by the People's Assembly, it should be signed by at least one-third of the members. In case the People's Assembly approves amendment in principle, the articles requested to be amended shall be discussed after two months. If amendment is approved by one-third of the Assembly members, it shall be put to public referundum. If the amendment is approved by the people, it shall become effective as of the date of announcing the referundum results.

6- Endorsing the Declaration of the State of War and Emergency: Upon the request of the President, the People's Assembly may approve the declaration state of war in an urgent closed session to be held.
In the case of state of emergency, the Prime Minister shall notify the Speaker of the Assembly of the decision to declare the state of emergency. The Speaker shallbring the presidential decree to declare or extend the state of emergency before the Assembly in an urgent closed session especially held for this purpose within 24 hours of being so notified. The Assembly shall refer the statement of the President or the Prime Minister to the Standing Committee that will in turn study the statements and submit a report to the Assembly including its opinion as to how far decision to declare the state of emergency is justifiable.

The Shura (Consultative) Council:
The Shura Council was founded in 1980 by virtue of a constitutional amendment agreed upon by the Egyptian people in a referendum held on May 22,1980. The law instituting this council was approved by the People's Assembly in the same year.
The establishment of the Shura Council reflected a drive to expand the scope of democracy and allow the participation of larger sections of highly reasoned and cultured people as well as senior specialists in planning the present and future of the country and participating in political decision-making.

The Shura Council Competences:
The Article 195 of the Consititution stipulates "that the Shura Council should be consulted" in the following:
1- Propositions on amendments to one or more articles of the Constitution.
2- Draft laws complementary to the Constitution.
3- Draft public plan of socio-economic development.
4- Treaties of conciliation and alliance as well as all treaties resulting in amendment to state territories or related to sovereignty rights.
5- Draft laws referred by the President.
6- Subjects referred by the President to the Council related to state policy or sovereignty rights.
The Constitution has provided for a number of parliamentary tools through which the Shura Council can practice its competences such as request for discussion and proposition. Two-thirds of the Shura Council members are elected by direct public secret ballot provided that at least one half of the members be workers and peasants. The remaining one-third shall be appointed by the President. Thanks to this unique set-up, the Shura Council has the advantage of having among its members, a plentiful number of experts, and specialists in law, economy, sciences, social and practical sciences and a galaxy of intellectuals, pressmen and mediamen in addition to an appropriate representation of women.

According to the Constitution, Prime Minister, ministers and other government members may give statements before the Shura Council or any of its committees on subjects within their terms of reference. In actual practice the Shura Council has played a substantial part in enriching democratic practice and expanding circles of discussion and study of public issues as well as benefiting from opinions and expertise of the largest possible sector of experts, specialists, intellectuals and opinion leaders.

The Shura Council Headquarter Auditorium:
This building, erected in 1878, was formerly aoccupied by the Ministry of Public Works and annexed to People's Assembly buildings in 1991.
Since 1881, this auditorium had been the venue of meetings of the Egyptian House of Representatives followed by Consultative Council of Laws and General Assembly until the present headquarters of the Parliament was built in 1923. During the period from 1924 to 1952, this auditorium was used for the Senate's sessions.
Since 1980, when the Shura Council was established, this auditorium was used by the Council as a venue for its sessions.

The auditorium is a rectanglar-shaped 15.30-m-wide, 10-m-long and 13-m-high building. It has four entrance doors; two in the east and the other two in the west. The main restorum is located west of the auditorium, rising about 1.2 m high above ground. It is made of wood adorned with geometrical and niche-shaped decorative works. The hall has 28 rows of 168 wooden leather-upholstered seats. The eastern and western sides of the hall are surrounded with four separate galleries.