Civilization in Egypt started in pre-historic eras; about 100,000 years. Since the late Paleolithic era (10,000 years BC), the ancient Egyptians were considered an independent nation and called them-selves “People of Egypt” or “People of Earth”. Two kingdoms were established in Egypt: one in the north, the other in the south.

The kingdom of the north is in Lower Egypt, with “Botu” as its capital, the “Papyrus” as its emblem, “Hour” as its deity and the “Snake” as its symbol.

 

The southern kingdom had “Nekhen” as its capital or “al-kab” recently, the “Lotus” as its emblem and “Seth” as its deity. During pre-historic time, several attempts were made to unite both the north and the south kingdoms, but were unsuccessful. It was only in the year 3200 BC when King Menes succeeded to unite the two kingdoms. He had a new capital for the united state built at the head of Delta, and called it the white castle which came to be known as Memphis. Thus, he founded the first state in history as a political unit with a capital, central government and administrative machinery including army, police, education and judicature.

 

 

During this era, principles of central government were established. Menes was called “The King of Both Lands and Bearer of Both Crowns”. The unification of both kingdoms had a significant impact on the development of Egypt in all aspects of life. Hieroglyphic writ-ing, i.e. sacred engraving was devised.

 

Kings were actively involved in securing the country's borders. Trade between Egypt and Sudan was developed. Egypt, then, embarked on a glorious period of its history, known as the Pyramids Builders age, where the first pyramid of Saqqara was built.

With the flourishing of agriculture. industry and trade, the first river fleet was introduced by the Egyptians. Thus, navigation became of a great importance and also became an organized craft as any of the settled crafts that old Egypt was famous for.

 

 

Kings of the Middle Kingdom attended to those projects most beneficial to the people, thus, allowing agriculture and handicrafts to flourish. Egyptian artists and engineers produced a great heritage that spread in Luxor, Fayyoum and Ain Shams. Accordingly, art and literature flourished in this era.

 

However, towards the end of this kingdom, Egypt was invaded by the Hyksos in 1957 BC who occupied and ruled the country for about 150 years.

 

 

At the hands of King Ahmus I, the Hyksos were beaten and expelled from Egypt. There followed a period of security and stability in Egypt. Learning from experience, an Egyptian strong army was built, thus, making it possible to build a great empire extending from the Euphrates in the east to the Fourth Cataract on the River Nile in the south. Thus, Egypt became a great power that influenced other countries up to west Asia. Therefore, Egypt became a vast empire. Kings and queens of the Twelfth Dynasty, in particular, were widely known in fields of politics, war, culture, and religion. For instance, there was Ahmus, the hero of liberation, Amenhotep I, the just king who issued a law to ban forced labour and set fair criteria for wages and incentives.

 

Tohotmus I was known as the warrior who expanded the Egyptian borders towards the north and south, spread education and expanded mining industry. Tohotmus III was known as a unique military genius and the first great conqueror in history. In addition, there was Tohotmus IV known as the diplomat, the first to have international trea-ties documented. Amenhotep III, the richest king in the ancient world opened schools or “houses of life” to spread education, plastic and applied arts. In addition, there was Akhenaten, the first king to advocate monotheism and Tutankhamun who is still world famous.

 

Most prominent queens of the Twelfth Dynasty include Queen lyah Hotep; wife of King Sekhetn Ra, Queen Ahmose Nefertari; wife of Ahmose I, Queen Ti; wife of Amenhotep III; mother of Akhen-aten, and the most famous Queen Nefertiti; wife of king Akhenaten who ruled Egypt for about twenty years. During her reign, Egypt reached top peaks of civilization, architecture and world trade. She sent her commercial fleet and scientific missions to the land of “Punt”. In addition, she built one of the greatest and most marvellous architectural monuments namely, ad-Deir al-Bahari on the west bank of the Nile, facing Luxor.

 

This era also witnessed Akhenaten religious revolution, where he called for the worship of one deity symbolized in the sun disc. He also built a new capital for Egypt named Akhaton. From the 21st to the 28th Dynasties, Egypt was occupied by the Assyrians in 670 BC and the Persians until the Pharaonic era came to an end with the 30th Dynasty when Alexander the Great invaded Egypt.

 

 

Ancient Egyptians made outstanding achievements in architecture, as can be clearly seen from the everlasting monuments they have left behind. The first pyramid ever built in Egypt was Zoser's, then Midum's pyramid. However, the Giza pyramids together with the Sphinx, built during the 4th Dynasty, are the most famous 97 pyramids built to be tombs for Pharaohs.

 

During the period of the Middle Kingdom, many funerary temples were built. The 12th Dynasty kings were also interested in el-Fayyoum area where they attended to irrigation works.

 

The most famous of those temples was the Labyrinth Temple or the “Maze Palace” as called by the Greeks. The temple was built in Hawwara by King Amenemehet III, who also built castles, fortresses and walls along Egypt's eastern borders.

The period of the Middle Kingdom was the heyday of architectural arts, where exquisite inscriptions and fine artworks were engraved on the walls of colossal temples, chief of which were Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel.

 

The era of Thutmose I was a turning point in using pyramids as tombs. On the west bank of the Nile at Luxor, there were carved-into-mountains tombs with rich and luxurious funerary furniture. This can be clearly seen in the tomb of Tutankhamun.

 

In order to keep wall inscriptions intact, the artists of the Modern kingdom deliberately used deep slightly embossed engravings, thus, avoiding distortion or erosion.

 

The most recently discovered tomb of the Valley of Kings was that of the sons of King Ramsis II; a vast tomb containing 15 mummies. Pharaonic obelisks were cut out of granite and erected in two-somes at the entrance of temples. Some of the most beautiful examples of architectural art in the ancient Egyptian empire are the tem-ples of Amun, Cheops in Karnak and Luxor, Ramsium and Hetshep-sut at ad-Deir al-Bahari as well as the rock-embedded temples such as the major and minor temples of Abu Simbel.

 

New trends in the architectural, plastic and applied arts emerged as can be clearly seen in the sculptured colossal and minor statues and ornamented temple columns and mural inscriptions. This elevated style is evident in thousands of small statues made from alabaster, wood or ivory and pieces of antiquities made of glass and earthenware and jewelry inlaid with precious stones.

 

 

Ancient Egyptian monuments still bear witness to their excellent talent in writing and literature. Humanity is indebted to ancient Egyptians for inventing writing, later called by the Greeks the “hieroglyphic alphabet”; composed of 24 letters. Writings were made in black or red ink on papyrus. Egyptians excelled in religious writing which tackled their religious creeds and theories of the after life, secrets of the universe, various myths of gods, prayers and songs. The oldest examples of which were “The Pyramids Texts” and “The Book of the Dead”.

 

Ancient Egyptian writers were excellent story writers. They used words as a tool to convey wisdom and rules of good conduct. Ancient Egyptians were bent on narrating their heritage of wise sayings and proverbs, chanting them in their feasts and ceremonies. They pursued the tradition of documenting current events of their times. This rich cultural climate was instrumental in generating several Egyptian men of letters and philosophers who left masterpieces indicative of a high level of culture and thought in Egypt.

 

 

Music and songs were a favourite object for all Egyptians. Music was used for educating young people as well as public and private ceremonies, particularly in the army. It was equally used in prayers and the burial of the dead.

Egyptians from the Old Kingdom knew wind and stringed instruments such as the “harp” known at that time as “Tipoti”. They also invented many new types of percussion instruments which were fur-ther improved across their history.

 

 

Ornaments, characterized by high artistic precision and beautiful form, were also known to ancient Egyptians. Decorative elements were derived from natural surroundings including papyrus, palm trees, lotus flowers and precious stones. Amulets, believed to protect them against evil spirits, were used. Women, in particular, paid special attention to their own make-up and toilet. They were accustomed to use Kohl (as eye-liner), bracelets, necklaces, rings and henna. Costumes in Pharaonic Egypt varied from one class to another. Clothes were made of soft linen or silk fabrics imported from ancient Syria (Phoenicia). Clothes differed according to the occasion.

 

 

Having beaten the Persians in Asia Minor, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in the year 332 BC and exepelled them out of Egypt. Then, he crowned himself as a king in the Pharaonic style and founded a new capital for Egypt named after him as “Alexandria”. Then, he made pilgrimage to Amun's Temple in Siwa Oasis, which was world renowned at that time.

 

 

After Alexander's death, Egypt was ruled by his general, Ptolemy who founded the Ptolemic Dynasty that reigned from 323 BC to 30 BC.

The Ptolemic rule remained strong only during the reign of the early kings. However, due to the weakness of the ensuing kings and the continuous revolts by the Egyptians, the Ptolemic Dynasty degenerated. Rome soon stepped in, putting an end to the Ptolemic rule during the reign of Cleopatra in 30 BC.

 

 

Alexandria became the capital of the Ptolemic rule in Egypt, where stately palaces and gardens were built. Alexandria was well-known not only as a centre of outstanding achievements in arts, science, industry and trade but also as the prime sea harbour on the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to its well-known Lighthouse, considered by the Greeks as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Alexandria was further well-known for its University, which symbolized a great Hellenistic- Egyptian civilization.

 

 

At Alexandria University, founded by the Ptolemies, scientists arrived at scientific facts concerning the earth's rotation around the sun and approximate circumference of the planet. The university was also famous for the study of medicine particularly anatomy and surgery. Most famous of the university scientists were the geometrician Euclides, the geographer Ptolemy and the Egyptian historian Maniton.

 

Library of Alexandria (Bibliotheca Alexandrina) and its Cultural Influence: The Ptolemies established in Alexandria a large library, which was considered the greatest in the world at that time.

 

The Library contained more than 500,000 papyrus rolls. The Ptolemies ordered that each visiting scientist should donate to the city a copy of his works, thus bringing the number of books at Alexandria Library to more than 700,000.

 

The Ptolemies showed respect for the Egyptian religion, offered sacrifices to Egyptian deities and built temples such as those of Edfu, Dandara and Philae in Aswan. The Ptolemies used to appear in official ceremonies in Pharaohs' apparel.

 

 

In 30 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Romans and was therefore rendered merely a province in their empire. However, due to her unique geographical position, the fertility of her land and cultural and urban development, Egypt was regarded as the most precious property of the Roman Empire. During this period, agriculture and industry, particularly, glass manufacturing, flourished in Egypt. Egypt was especially known for the creation of the art of glass blowing and monopoly of paper manufacturing as well as perfume, cosmetics and fine linen fabrics.

 

The Egyptian capital, Alexandria, was particularly the largest trading and industrial centre in the east Mediterranean and the second city of the Roman Empire.

Alexandria University maintained its position as a centre of scien-tific research and a seat of learning for scholars from all parts of the world, during the Roman era in Egypt.

 

 

Coptic architecture, still upholding the spirit of ancient Pharaonic art, served in the uninterrupted chain of Egyptian art, running down from Pharaonic to Greek and Roman eras in Egypt. Churches built since the 5th Century AD up to the Arab conquest of Egypt are models of Coptic art architecture.

 

The prevailing style of painting during the Coptic era was an ex tension of the Fresco style or oxidized colour painting on gypsumcoated walls, inherited from previous eras.

 

As ancient Egyptians were familiar with music, a unique art of church musical trend of ancient Egyptian melodies emerged in Egypt during the Coptic era. Some of the church tunes played until now in the Coptic Church, still bear Pharaonic names such as the Singari and Itribi tunes. The Coptic Museum in Cairo still contains rare treasures dating back to the Coptic era as finely ornamented handmade utensils, jewelry, medical, and surgical tools, writing kits in addition to weaving and ornamentation handicrafts.

 

 

 

The Islamic era in Egypt was generally the golden age for arts and architecture. Examples of such revival can be seen in the building of several mosques, fortresses and city walls, in addition to the flourishing of decorative arts. These were most evident in the construction of al-Fustat, the first capital of Egypt, where Amr Ibn el-Aas built the first mosque in the country. The Nile meter on the island of Rodha in modern Cairo, built by Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakel Billah in 245 AH, is known to be the oldest Islamic monument in Egypt.

 

Islamic architecture also flourished mainly in al-Qatay' city and Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque which was built in the same style of Amr Ibn el-Aas mosque, with the addition of a fountain, minaret, props and the foundation sign board. The minaret of Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque is known for its unique shape in Egypt derived from the Persian temples known as “Zigurat”.

 

The Fatimid period also witnessed the development of local Islamic architecture. Al-Azhar, al-Anwar and Al-Aqmar mosques are famous examples of Fatimid architecture in Egypt.

 

Al-Geoshi Mausoleum is a model for dome structures and mosques built around the tombs of eminent men of religion.

 

During the Ayyubid period, further advances were made in the field of architecture. Salah ed-Din's (Saladin's) Citadel still stands out as a lofty, striking example of Islamic architecture. The Mamelukes were no less advanced in this field. They also left behind a great wealth of finely designed and decorated mosques, domes, mystics' houses, palaces, schools, khans (inns), fortresses and public drinking fountains. Egyptians under Islamic rule adopted the same techniques and styles of art and ornamentation prevailing in the preceding periods. Most notable arts of this period were wood engraving and ornamentation, assembled dove tailed and lathed wood work. Islamic style textiles, porcelain and stained glass were also widely known during this period.

 

 

By virtue of all his up-to-date all encompassing reforms, Muhammad Ali is truly considered the founder of Modern Egypt. He encouraged and sponsored men of learning, scientists and artists. He built a powerful army as well as a military academy. A ship building industry was started in Boulaq, Cairo together with a shipyard in Alexandria.

He specially attended to the administration of government affairs. During the first half of the 19th Century, a full-scale economic revival was in full swing. Special attention was given to agriculture and irri-gation, where barrages, dams and canals were built. In industry, Muhammad Ali adopted a policy of dispensing with foreign-made products, and creating national factories and plants to meet the needs of the army and the public.

In trade, he sought to provide security for internal trade routes and create a foreign trade fleet. During his reign, trade flourished.

 

At the same time, Muhammad Ali was enthusiastically interested in spreading education to cater government manpower needs. Schools of various levels and specialties were built and educational missions were sent to Europe to transfer modern sciences to Egypt.

After his death, Muhammad Ali's successors tried their best to follow his suit by attempting to catch up with European civilization. During the reign of Khedive Ismail, Egypt witnessed an awakening administrative reform, while agriculture, industry, construction and architecture prospered. Most notable of his achievements was the establishment of the Opera House, railroads and the Suez Canal which was opened to international navigation in 1869.

 

Thus, the 19th Century was one of enlightenment, rediscovery of the Egyptian power system and development of human wealth. By the end of the century, Egypt witnessed many revolts against the foreign intervention.

 

The nationalist movement grew stronger and several popular revolts took place. However, the Orabi Revolution (1882 AD) ended up with Egypt being occupied and declared a protectorate by Britain in 1914. Accordingly, Egypt officially broke off from Ottoman suze-rainty.

 

Thus, Egypt entered the 20th Century, suffering under the yoke of British colonialist rule that plundered its resources. Popular resistance and national movements soon escalated under the nationalist leaders: Mostafa Kamel, Muhammad Fareed and Sa'ad Zaghloul, leading the 1919 Revolution calling for independence. The British occupation of Egypt came to an end and the country was declared as an independent state in 1922. The first Egyptian Constitution was issued in 1923.

 

Later, there ensued a period of economic revival led by the great nationalist economist Tala'at Harb, leading to the establishment of an industrial, productive and services base in all sectors of the economy.

 

 

Under the leadership of Gamal Abden-Nasser, the July 1952 Revolution brought about a host of achievements including the enactment of the first agrarian reform law and the first 5-year plan for socio-economic development in the history of Egypt (1960).

Industry and production were developed. The Aswan High Dam was completed (1960-1970). Outstanding achievements were also made in the fields of education, health, agriculture and construction. In the field of foreign policy, Egypt adopted a policy of positive neutrality and encouraging national liberation movements.

 

Cognizant since its inception of Egypt's leading role in the Arab world, its growing military power and untiring defense of the Palestinian case in world forums, Israel launched a treacherous assault on June 5, 1967 against Egypt, Syria and Jordan, ending up with Israeli occupation of Sinai, the Golan Heights and the West Bank of Jordan.

The Egyptian army managed successfully to stand the test of the Israeli troops in a war of attrition. In the meantime, the leader of the July Revolution, Gamal Abden Nasser, died in September 28, 1970.

 

President Anwar as-Sadat proceeded with the policy of mobilizing all state resources for the liberation of the occupied land. On October 6, 1973, both Egyptian and Syrian armies simultaneously launched a battle for liberating Arab lands from Israeli occupation. A few hours after the start of the war, the Egyptian army victoriously crossed to the east bank of the Suez Canal where the Egyptian banner was raised high.

 

In the October War, Egyptian forces scored an outstanding victory. This prompted President Anwar as-Sadat to contemplate a radical settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the establishment of just and lasting peace in the Middle East. There followed the peace treaty with Israel (Camp David Accord) in March 26, 1979, with the participation of USA. This treaty was preceded by President Sadat's visit to Israel in 1977. On April 25, 1982, Israel withdrew its forces from the Sinai peninsula and later from the frontier strip of Taba pur-suant to arbitration by the International Court of Justice.

 

Following President Sadat's death in 1981, President Muhammad Hosni Mubarak assumed office, based on a public referendum.

 

Since then, he has sought to bring about internal stability, improve and firmly establish democratic practice. At that time, his main con-cern was to bring about comprehensive and sustainable development through a series of development plans that have been successfully implemented so far, underpinned by an upgraded infrastructure.

As a result, substantial progress has been made in both sectors of production and services such as education, health, culture, and media. In general, Egypt witnessed successful development efforts and economic reforms, that have been appreciated by world financial institu-tions, as a unique example to be followed. What is striking in this exercise is that in carrying out economic reform, requirements of the social dimension were duly taken into consideration.

 

At present, there is emphasis on re-charting Egypt's urban and demographic map. This would enable the Egyptians to build a new civilization, using the most up-to-date technologies and modern tools. For dreams to come true, a set of mega projects have been launched, in order to expand Egypt's urban and demographic map beyond the old Valley and Nile Delta, that have become so overcrowded that they could no longer cope with the people's ambitions for a better future. The projects of Toshka, Sharq al-Owainat, Port Said, as-Salam Canal in Sinai and north Suez Gulf development are all designed to alleviate overcrowded population in the old Valley and Delta and expand Egypt's inhabited area.

 

These projects provide for Egypt a gateway to embark into the 21st Century, paving the way for building a new society based on information and communication technology. On the external level, the era of President Mubarak is marked with unwavering pursuit of just and comprehensive peace as a means of achieving world cooperation, security, stability and prosperity. During the rule of President Mubarak, Egypt managed to restore its relations with Arab countries as well as its membership of the Arab League with the headquarters of the Arab League reinstated in its permanent seat in Cairo in 1990.

President Mubarak accords prime importance to deepening Egypt's African relations through bilateral ties as well as through the Organization of African Unity where he was elected as chairman in 1993.

 

Moreover, President Mubarak asserts Egypt's unwavering stance on the Palestinian issue. Egypt has been exerting unrelentless efforts to push forward the Middle East peace process on the basis of international legitimacy resolutions.

 

President Mubarak has always been keen on mastering a collec-tive Arab stance, resolving on Arab-Arab discords and deepening Arab solidarity and joint cooperation.

In virtue of its unique central location now, as ever, Egypt main-tains wide relations with all the Asian countries and adopts firm stances towards Islamic world issues. In addition, Egypt has close relations with western and eastern Europe countries. It also plays a positive role in promoting Arab-European dialogue for activating the Middle East peace efforts. Egypt also maintains strong and distinguished relations with the USA thanks to its international weight. Egypt, under the leadership of President Mubarak, maintains a tangible presence in international fora and conferences.

 

President Mubarak took part in the meeting of the UN General Assembly more than once along with conferences of specialized organizations such as the International Labour Conference, the International Conference on Environment and UNCTAD.

President Mubarak most recently participated in the G-15 Conference for 2000. In a nutshell, Egypt under President Mubarak has a qualitative leap in its foreign policy, reaffirming Egypt's positive role under the new world order and the challenges of the age.

 

Over the past 20 years, Egypt has made a near-miracle achievement; establishing a huge infrastructure at an estimated cost of LE 353 billion. With the beginning of the 3rd Millennium, President Mubarak called for modernizing Egypt in the framework of an ambitious national project to measure up with the fast-moving world scientific and technological advances in all walks of life.